In English
If I knew that before, I would
come.
If I had known that before, I
would have come.
Were she at home then, she
would come.
Had I known that before, I would
have come.
In Ukrainian Якби я знав це раніше, я б прийшов.
Якби я був знав це раніше, я був би прийшов.
Була б вона в той час удома, вона
прийшла б.Знав би я був це раніше, я був би прийшов.
The category of Voice: passive voice in English and Ukrainian
The category of voice is a category of the verb or verbal inflections that expresses whether the relation between the subject and the verb is that of agent and action, action and recipient, or some other relation.
The Active Voice
(1) regular flexion > productive/open class: 4 verbal forms
(2) irregular flexion > unproductive/closed class: 4 or 5 verbal forms
- irregular means of flexion manifested only in the past participle/passive participle forms
- bare form: null suffix
- 3rd per. SG present tense form: -(e)s suffix <> homonymous with the regular plural of N, observes the same rules for pronunciation/spelling x no change of the word-final -y
- present participle/gerund form: -ing suffix <> the same rules for pronunciation/spelling as the grading of ADJ/ADV
- past simple/past participle/passive participle: -ed suffix <> pronounced [id] after [t, d], pronounced [t] after voiceless consonants, pronounced [d] after voiced consonants and vowels.
The Passive Voice
- active clause structure: subject/agent + predicate + object/patient
- passive clause structure: subject/patient + predicate + object/agent
(a) the direct object shifts to the position of the subject and adopts the subject case
(b) the verb adopts the passive form: the finite form of be + the passive participle
(c) the agent may be expressed as a by-phrase
- inanimate subjects needn’t become by-adjuncts: she is interested in sculpture; I’m surprised at his attitude; we’re delighted at the prospect; I’m worried about it.
Verbal Complexes
(a) phrasal verbs: [V + PREP] + [OBJECT] > preposition stranding
- the PREP stranded to the end with the verb: the doctor should be sent for at once
- CZ: absent > equivalent is a subjectless passive clause: mělo by se ihned poslat pro lékaře
(b) phrasal verbs with an object close to the adverbial
- [V + PREP] exchangeable with transitive verb => passivisation possible, PREP stranded
- sleep in a bed = use a bed: nobody slept in the bed > the bed has not been slept in
(c) phrasal verbs with an adverb particle: the offer was turned down
(d) phrasal verbs with an adverb particle and a preposition: the losses have been made up for.
Double Object Structures
- CZ: impossible to passivise an indirect OBJ > one possible passive structure
- E: an indirect OBJ can be passivised after re-structuralisation > two possible passive structures, depending on the FSP
- John [Theme] has been awarded the 1st prize [Rheme] x the 1st prize [Theme] was awarded to John [Rheme]
A peculiar feature of passive constructions in English is their much more frequent use than in Ukrainian. This is accounted for a) the use of some English irregular verbs as regular: The office is run by Mr. Brown. The dog was walked by Ann; b) the use of any of the two direct objects as subjects of the sentence in the passive voice: Mother forgave Dora her drawbacks; Dora was forgiven her drawbacks... Dora's drawbacks were forgiven by her mother; c) the use of prepositional objects as subjects in the passive voice: He was taken care of, d) the use of the past participle as a nominal part of the predicate: He was seated, pen in hand, at the table... (Cronin). "Is he generally liked? (Bronte).
Elucidate approaches to Classification of sentences in eng and ukr.
The sentence is the immediate integral unit of speech built up words according to a definite syntactic pattern and distinguished by a contextually relevant communicative purpose.
From the point of view of their structure sentences can be divided into: two-membered (double-nucleus); one-membered (single-nucleus); complete; incomplete; simple; composite (compound, complex).
Simple sentences. Two-membered sentence contains two principle parts - the subject and the predicate. (Fleur had established immediate contact with an architect).
A two-membered sentence can be complete and incomplete. It is complete when it has a subject and a predicate (Young John could not help smiling). It is incomplete when one of the principal parts or both of them are missing, but can be easily understood from the context. Such sentences are called elliptical and they are mostly used in colloquial speech and especially in dialogue (Where were you yesterday? At the cinema).
One-membered sentence have only one principal part (Dusk - of a summer night).
Simple sentences, both two-membered and one-membered can be unextended and extended. A sentence consisting only of the primary or principle parts is called an unextended sentence. She is a student. Birds fly. Winter!
An extended sentence is a sentence consisting of the subject, predicate and one or more secondary parts (objects, attributes, adverbial modifiers). The two native woman stole furtive glances at Sarie.
Composite sentence is formed by two or more predicative groups. Being a polypredicative construction, it expresses a complicated thought reflecting two or more elementary situational events.
Each predicative unit in a composite sentence makes up a clause in it that corresponds to a separate sentence as a part of a contextual sequence.
Composite sentence displays two principal types of the connection of clauses - subordination and coordination.
According to the traditional view, all composite sentences are to be classed into:
compound sentences (coordinating their clauses),
complex (subordinating their clauses)
A compound sentence is a sentence which consists of two or more clauses coordinated with each other. In a compound sentence the clauses may be connected:
1) syndetically, i.e. by means of coordinating conjunctions (and, or, else, but, etc.) or conjunctive adverbs (otherwise, however, nevertheless, yet, still, therefore, etc.)
E.g. The darkness was thinning, but the street was still dimly lighted.
2) asyndetically, i.e. without a conjunction or conjunctive adverb.
E.g. The rain fell softly, the house was quiet.
The main semantic relations between the clauses connected coordinativety are copulative, adversative, disjunctive, casual, consequental, resultative.
A complex sentence is a polypredicative construction built up on the principle of subordinating.
Translation: Basic Definitions
Translation is a human activity known since ancient times and an interpreter or translator is among the oldest professions dating back to the biblical era and earlier. Usually when people speak about translation or even write about it in special literature they are seldom specific about the meaning. The presumption is quite natural – everybody thinks that they understand the meaning of the word. However, to describe and study translation intuitive understanding is not sufficient –what one needs is a definition.
In professor Fyodorov’s definition translation is a recreation of the original by means of another language with the retained unity of form and content. It is a form of creative activity in the sphere of language. In this connection the task set before the translator is not word for word rendering of the original but its creative reproduction by means of another language. The aim of the translation is to acquaint the reader who does not know the language of the original with the content of the latter. To translate the original is to express its content exactly and completely by means of another language retaining the unity of form and content.
Translation is the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Ttranslation may be defined as the transfer of meaning from one language to another. Translation takes place in writing and interpreting is its oral counterpart. The two terms are often confused. At its best, a successful translation should read as if it were originally written in the new language.
Goals of Translation
Translators may be called upon to translate just about anything. Any text, message, fragment of a message or code element may need to be translated. A comprehensive list of materials that are commonly translated would include software programs, video games, software on-line help systems, insurance contracts, extradition proceedings, film sub-titles, songs, film dialogues, all kinds of soundtracks, drug dosage instructions, obituaries, mail catalogues, mobile phone instructions, marketing certificate applications, sales contracts, health certificates, user manuals (millions of them), parts lists, commercial statistics, registry office certificates, educational qualifications and certificates, confidential diplomatic memos, advertising leaflets, adverts, magazine and newspaper articles, alarms system documentation, customer complaints, the faxed minutes of a meeting before the next session starts, poems, novels, short stories, biographies, bills of lading and customs forms, post card titles, medical files, extradition requests, technical memos, annual reports, letters to the shareholders, DNA analysis reports, machine user instructions, patents, and many more. Nor is language-based material the only type of material that comes up for translation: graphic images, alphanumerical data, video graphic material or pictograms, computer code or other types of code, sound, noise, signs, colors and signals, may also have to be “translated” into other codes or languages. The translator may for instance have to inform the client that a color which is a symbol of happiness and optimism in European cultures is a symbol of death in certain Far-Eastern cultures, and that it may be worth changing the graphic chart for the documentation accordingly. The list of materials that the translator may be called on to “translate” is endless.
The Functions of Translation
Translation plays a very significant role in cultural development of mankind. It is only on the basis of translation that communication and mutual intercourse and interchange between peoples speaking different languages become possible. Not a single contact at the international level can be established or maintained without the help of translators or interpreters. Different international bodies (E.E.C. – European economic Council, the I.M.F. – the International Monetary Fund or the United nations Organization) can function smoothly only thanks to the army of translators and interpreters representing different states and working in many different national languages. Numerous branches of national economies too can keep up with the up-to-date development and progress in the modern world thanks to the everyday translating of scientific and technical matter covering various fields of human knowledge and activities. Thus we may outline the main functions of translation as following:
Scientific and technical – it fosters the progress in various fields of science and technology in all countries of the world.
Social and political - it provides the dissemination of political ideas, of social and political knowledge in different field of science.
Cultural - it is also a perfect means of sharing achievements and enriching national literatures and cultures.
Linguistic - it promotes the enrichment of lexicon and of the means of expression in the target language.
Educational – one of the means of teaching foreign language
The Objectives of the Theory of Translation
Practical translation is a creative process that should be distinguished from the theory of translation as a science. The theory of translations is rather young and belongs to linguistic disciplines. As a part of philology it is inconceivable without the organic combination of both linguistic and literary methods.
The objectives of the theory of translation are
to provide an overview of translation studies as an academic discipline.
to present translation theory as a component of this discipline and outline some of the issues it aims to address.
to outline the various perspectives from which different scholars have attempted to develop a theory of translation.
to formulate aims and tasks of rendering,
to show ways and means of solving problems of translation,
to establish lexical, grammatical and stylistic correspondences and divergences between two languages
to point out possible ways of their rendering from one language into the other.
But one has to remember that theory of translation is not and has nothing to do with a collection of recommendations how to translate. Very often the translator follows some advice the science offers but most cases in translation practice require quite original and individual solutions. The translator’s success depends on his proficiency and theoretical knowledge, as well as his ability to use the accumulated practical experience and achievements of the past.
The Earliest Mentions of Translation
Word translation in general and European translation in particular has a ling and praiseworthy tradition. The earliest mention of translation goes back to aprx the year 3000 BC in ancient Egypt where the interpreters or dragomans were employed to help in carrying on trade with the neighboring country of India. The dragomans were employed to accompany the trade caravans and help in negotiating, selling and buying the necessary goods for Egypt. Also in those ancient times (2400 BC), the Assyrian emperor Sargon of the city Akkada (Mesopotamia), is known to have circulated his order of the day translated into some lands of the subject countries. In 2100 BC, Babylon translations are known to have been performed into some lang-s including Greek, Armenian, Egyptian. The city of Babylon in those times was a center of polyglots where translations were accomplished in several lang-s. There existed the first known bilingual (Sumerian-Akkadian) and multilingual dictionaries. In 1800 BC, in Assyria there was already smth of a board of translators headed by the chief translator/interpreter, a certain GIKI. The first trade agreement is known to have beeen signed in two lang-s between Egypt and its neighbour Nubia in 1200BC.
Interpreters and tr-s of the Persian and Indian lang-s are known to have been employed in Europe by Alexandr the Great, the emperor of Makedonia, during the military campaign against Persia and India. Romans in their numerous wars also employed interpreters.
The history of European translation goes back to 280 BC with the translation of some excerpts of the Holy Scriptures. The real history of translation into European lang-s is supposed to begun in 250 BC in the Egyptian city of Alexandria. The local leaders of the Jewish community decided to translate the Old Testament from Aramaic (their lang.), which was no longer understood, into ancient Greek, which became their spoken language. 72 learned Jews translated separately for 70 days and their translations became to be identical. This translation was called Septuagint, The bulk of Septuagint is known today to have been word-for –word translation (slavishly literal).
Later on, with the political, economic and military strengthening of the Roman Empire, more and more translations were performed from Greek into Latin. Roman-Greel scholar Livius Andronicus made a successful translation of Homer’s poems, the Iliad and Odyssey in 240 BC, it became the foundation for the rich Latin belles-letters traditions.
Marcus Cicero became a famous in Rome by his literary translations and for principles of sense-to-sense translations (main aim of translator –to convey the sense and the style of the source language text).
Translation and Interpretation during the Middle Ages
Word-for –word translation was widely practiced in the famous Toledo school in the central Spain (12-13centuries) where the outstanding translator of that country Gerhard of Cremona worked. Among the works translated there were scientific (as alchemy), mathematical works (on arithmetic, algebra, geometry, physics, astronomy), philosophy, medicine. However, in Northern Spain another school of translation functioned where “sense-to-sense” approach was predominant and translations there were mostly performed from Greek into Hebrew (usually through Arabic). These same two principles, according to Solomon Ibn Ajjub, one of the greatest authorities on translation in the middle of the 13th century, were practiced in the southern Italian school (Rome), which had fallen under a strong Arabic cultural influence as well. Secular works were translated in this school with many omissions, additions, and paraphrases of their texts, which changed the original works beyond recognition.
King Alfred the Great took an active part in translating manuals, chronicles and other works from ancient languages and thus helped in the spiritual and cultural elevation of his people. His noble was continued by the abbot and the author Aelfric (955-1020) who would paraphrase some parts of the work while translating and adding his own part. Yet, Aelfric would consider this technique of rendering as a sense-to-sense translation. Abbot Aelfric himself admitted, that in his translation of the Latin work under the English title The Shepherd’s Book, he performed it “sometimes word-by-word” and “sometimes according to the sense”, in free translation. These same 2 approaches to translation were also characteristic of other European countries of the Middle Ages.
No less intensively practiced alongside of the free sense-to-sense rendering in Europe during the Middle Ages was the strict word-for-word translation. Its domain of employment was naturally restricted to ecclesiastic and philosophic works. By this method the first ever translation of the Bible from Latin into English was accomplished in 1377-1380 by the religious scientist and reformer John Wycliffe.
Translation during the Renaissance Period
The Renaissance period which started in the 14th century in Italy was marked by great discoveries and inventions. The most significant one – invention of the moving printing press by the German Gutenberg. It caused the quick growth of the amount of printed books and at the same time – readers. And the demand for books in its turn called forth an increase in translation activity, fiction translations. Alongside of this, the birth and strengthening of national European states raised the status of national languages and reduced the role of Latin. Translations began to be performed not only from classic languages but also from and into European languages. These real changes resulted in a wider use of faithful as well as free translations which started almost in one and the same time in France, Germany and England.
Germany- Albrecht von Eyb (translator of Plautu’s works), Heinrich Steinhowel (translator of Aesop’s and Boccaccio’s works)
France – Joachim du Bellay (translator of Ovid’s poems)-new free/unrestricted freedom of translation, Etienne Dolet – sense-to-sense translation, Claude Fontaine
Translation during the Period of Classicism and Enlightenment (просвітництво)
Despite the official condemnation and even execution of some adherents of the idea of sense-to-sense translation, the controversy between the supporters of these 3 approaches to translating continued all through the period of Classicism and Enlightment.
These approaches were already mentions as follows:
1.The ancient “strict and truthful” word-for-word translation of ecclesiastic( the Septuagint) and philosophic works. The basic principles – in the transl-s of the Bible by Luther and Tyndale.
2.The unrestricted free translation introduced by Horaceand Apuleius, which established strong position in France.
3.the old trend adhering to the Cicero’s principle of regular sense-to-sense translation without the unrestricted reductions or additions to the work in their final translated version.
In the 17-18th the unchanging of the structure of the original belles-letters texts was demanded from the interpreters.
The English author John Dryden demanded from translators faithfulness to the spirit of the original, it became the motto in the period of classicism and Enlightenment.
German translator and literary critic Ventzky put forward the idea that the translated belles-letters works “should seem to the readers to be born, not made citizens’, principle of adjustment of the source language works to the current readers by way of free, unrestricted sense-to-sense rendering.
The most outspoken defender of free adaptation translation in Germany was Frau Gottsched and her adherents Kruger, Laub and Schlegel. She recommended to modernize and nationalize the foreign author’s works, to change their scenes of events, customs, traditions for the corresponding German customs and traditions. She recommended the use of dialectal material in translation and practiced unrestricted free interpretation of original belles-letters works.
The Epoch of Romanticism and Establishment of the Principles of Faithful Translation in Europe
In the second half of the 18th century the controversy between the opponents of the strict word-for-word translation and those who supported the free sense-to-sense translation continued unabated. The most outspoken opponents were Campbell and Tytler in England, Herder and Gothe in Germany.
Herder visited European countries including Ukraine and studied their national folksongs, the most characteristic of which he translated into German. Herder was captivated by the beauty of the national songs of Ukraine. He demanded that all translators of prose and poetic works render strictly, fully and faithfully not only the richness of content, but also the stylistic peculiarities, the artistic beauty and the spirit of the source language works. This new approach, or rather a new principle of truly faithful literary translation, was born during the period of Enlightenment and developed during early Romanticism.
This faithful/realistic principle was not employed in all European countries at once. The free sense-to-sense translation/unrestricted free translation as well as free adaptation continued to be widely employed in Europe in the 1st half of the 19th century and even later.
Translation in Ukraine
Biletskiy-Nosenko, Hulak-Artemovsky, Borovykovskyi’ were well-known translators of those times.
Near faithful versification can be observed in Hrebinka’s translation of Pushkin’s Poltava, which the poet himself identified as free translation. Both these versifictions convey almost completely the content, the iambic or choric rhythm, their vocalic and consonantal lines, their ease and melody. Despite some divergences in picturesqueness, phraseology, these translated works already bear all the characteristic features of a faithful versification.
Consequently, the first half of the 19th century may be considered to have been the starting date in the history of faithful Ukrainian versification/translation.
Actively participating in the literary process of that period were poet Metlynskyi (translations of German, French poets) and Maksymovych (versification of the Tale of the Host of Ihor).
Other translators –Holovatskyi (Serbian songs), Hrebinka, Maksymovych, Borovykovsky, Fedkovych (Austrian and German poetry), Kostomarov (Byron’s works), Starytskyi, Potebnya, Puliuy. Kulish, Franko, Lesya Ukrainka.
In the 10th-11th century only the materials necessary for the church services were translated, but soon the Bible began to appear in different cities of Kyivan Rus’. Among the fully preserved Bibles of those timed today are the Reims Bible, the Ostomyr’ Bible, the Mstyslaw’s Bible, Halych Bible.
In the 11-12th centuries there also appeared several Psalm books (Psalters) which were followed by the “Apostles”. It is important to note, that the Old Slavonic translations of Psalms and larger works as The Jewish Wars by Josephus Flavius contained several lexical, morphological (vocative case forms), syntactic features of the then old Ukrainian which are used in present-day Ukrainian.
A considerable intensification was witnessed in Ukrainian translation during the 17th century, which could have been influenced by the activities in the Kyiv Mohyla Academy(1632). In the first half of the 17th century there appeared the translations from the Greek (by Slilskyi and Nalyvaiko), from the Latin (by Sakovych).These translations were of high quality and were mostly free adaptations.
During the second half of the 17th century after the domination over Ukraine was divided between Russia and Poland (Andrussovo treaty), translation practically survived only in the Kyiv Mohyla Academy.
Translators – Symeon Polotskiy, Tuptalo, Mokiyevych (Old and new Testament, the Bible of Matthew).
17-18th century. Ivan Maksymovych translated the works of German poet Hugo.
The psalms, poetic worksof the Roman poets Ovid, Martail and of the French Renaissance poet Scaliger were often translated at the Academy as well.
A considerable intensification was witnessed in Ukrainian translation during the 17th century, which could have been influenced by the activities in the Kyiv Mohyla Academy(1632). In the first half of the 17th century there appeared the translations from the Greek (by Slilskyi and Nalyvaiko), from the Latin (by Sakovych).These translations were of high quality and were mostly free adaptations.
Criteria for Translation Classification
Though the basic characteristics of translation can be observed in all translation events we should single out different types of translation depending on the predominant communicative function of the ST or the form of speech involved in the translation process – communicative classification of translation. In consistence with the communicative classification of translations we may distinguish between literary and informative translation on the one hand, and between written and oral translation (or interpretation), on the other hand.
Literary translation deals with literary texts, i.e. works of fiction or poetry; their main function is to produce an emotional or aesthetic impression upon the reader. Their communicative value depends, first and foremost, on their artistic quality and the translator’s primary task is to reproduce this quality in the translation.
Informative translation deals with rendering into the TL nonliterary texts, the main purpose of which is to convey a certain amount of ideas, to inform the reader. We should bear in mind that sometimes this classifications is very approximate since a literary text may in fact include some parts of purely informative character and informative translation may comprise some elements aimed at achieving an aesthetic effect.
Communicative Classification of Translation
Though the basic characteristics of translation can be observed in all translation events we should single out different types of translation depending on the predominant communicative function of the ST or the form of speech involved in the translation process – communicative classification of translation. In consistence with the communicative classification of translations we may distinguish between literary and informative translation on the one hand, and between written and oral translation (or interpretation), on the other hand.
Literary translation deals with literary texts, i.e. works of fiction or poetry; their main function is to produce an emotional or aesthetic impression upon the reader. Their communicative value depends, first and foremost, on their artistic quality and the translator’s primary task is to reproduce this quality in the translation.
Informative translation deals with rendering into the TL nonliterary texts, the main purpose of which is to convey a certain amount of ideas, to inform the reader. We should bear in mind that sometimes this classifications is very approximate since a literary text may in fact include some parts of purely informative character and informative translation may comprise some elements aimed at achieving an aesthetic effect.
Genre Classification of Translation
Literary works are known to fall into a number of genres thus another type of classification of translations will be genre classification. Translators of prose, poetry, plays have their own problems. Each of these forms of literary activities comprises a number of subgenres and the translator may specialize in one or some of them in accordance with his talents and experience.
The translator of a belles-lettres text is expected to make a careful study of the literary trend the ST belongs to, the other works of the same author, the peculiarities of his style, manner, etc. A number of subdivisions can be also suggested for informative translations, though the principles of classification here are somewhat different. Here we may single out translation of scientific and technical texts, of newspaper materials, official papers and some other types of texts such as public speeches, advertisements, etc.
In technical translation the main goal is to identify the situation described in the original. There is a great challenge to the translator who must have a very good command of the technical terms and a sufficient understanding of the subject matter to be able give an adequate description of the situation even if it is not highly achieved in the original. The technical translator should also observe the stylistic requirements of scientific and technical materials to make the text acceptable to the specialist.
English newspaper reports differ greatly due to the frequent use of the colloquial, slang and vulgar elements, various paraphrases, eye-catching headlines, etc.
Apart from technical and newspaper materials it may be necessary to single out translation of official diplomatic papers as a separate type of informative translation. These are very important documents every word of which must be carefully chosen as a matter of principle. That makes the translator very particular about every little meaningful element of the ST which he scrupulously reproduces in translation.
Journalistic (or publisistic texts dealing with social or political matters are sometimes singled out among other informative materials because they may feature elements more commonly used in literary texts (stylistic devices) which cannot but influence the translator’s strategy.
There are also some minor groups of texts that can be considered separately because of the specific problems their translation poses to the translator. They are commercial advertisement comic scripts, film scripts, and the like. In dealing with commercial advertisements he must bear in mind that their sole purpose is to win over the prospective customers. Translating the captions in a comic strip, the translator will have to consider the numerous allusions to the facts well-known to the regular readers of comics but less familiar to the Ukrainian readers. In dubbing a film the translator is limited in his choice of variants by the necessity to fit the pronunciation of the translated words to the movements of the actor’s lips.
Psycholinguistic Classification of Translation
The third type of classification is psycholinguistic classification according to which translations are subdivided into written or oral.
The interpreter rendering his translation by word of mouth may have the text of the original in front of him and translate it “at sight”. A written translation can be made of the original recorded on the tape that can be replayed as many types as necessary for the translator to grasp the original meaning.
In written translation the original can be read and re-read as many times as the translator may need or like.
The conditions of oral translation impose a number of important restrictions on the translator’s performance. Here the interpreter receives a fragment of the original only once and for a short period of time.
There are two main types of oral translation –consecutive and simultaneous. In consecutive translation the translating starts after the original speech or some part of it has been completed. Here the interpreter’s strategy and the final result depend to a great extend on the length of the segment to be translated. If the segment is just a sentence or two the interpreter closely follows the original speech.
In simultaneous interpretation the interpreter is supposed to be able to give his translation while the speaker is uttering the original message. This can be achieved with a special radio or telephone-type equipment. This type of translation involves a number of psycholinguistic problems, both of theoretical and practical nature.
Though these two varieties of interpretation have much in common there are substantial differences in the working environment:
In simultaneous interpretation the interpreter is much more limited in time.
In s.i. the length of the text translated is much shorter than in consecutive.
Unlike consecutive interpretation where the interpreter may correct mistakes and slips of the tongue, simultaneous interpreter has no time for corrections and redoing.
Long stretches of speech to e translated do not allow the consecutive interpreter to keep close o the ST, whereas the simultaneous interpreter is forced by the time limitations to translate by small fragments of the source text transforming them accordingly to the target language grammar.
However, both during consecutive and simultaneous interpretation interpreters use text compression and text development as basic translation devices.
Basic compression devices used in Ukrainian-English translation comprise:
Transformation of nominative structures into the verbal ones;
Converting prepositional constructions into noun clusters;
Omission of transformation of words and word combinations typical for Ukrainian style and considered redundant according to English speech standards.
Limited knowledge of the foreign language does not permit free interpretation of the ST and English way of expression is more concise and often English text contains no redundant words, which is explained by the analytical structure of the language.
Text development is reflected in note-taking procedure, which usually includes the following information items:
main ideas (skeleton outline) – subject , verb, object;
links and separations;
viewpoints of the speaker;
tenses and modalities;
proper and geographical names
Thus, compression and development are the basic interpretation tools and they should determine the methods of interpretation training.
Equivalents in Translation: the Notion of Equivalence
By “equivalence” we understand a measure of semantic similarity between the ST and the TT. Translation equivalence is the key idea of translation. According to Hornby equivalent means equal in value, amount, volume, etc. The principle of equivalence is based on the mathematical law of transitivity that reads: if A is equal to C and B is equal to C, then B equals A. As applied to translation, equivalence means that if a word or word combination of one language (A) corresponds to certain concept (C) and a word or word combination of another language (B) corresponds to the same concept (C) these words or word combinations are considered equivalent (connected by the equivalence relation). In other words, in translation equivalent means indirectly equal, that is equal by the similarity of meanings.
It is very easy to observe an apparent lack of scientific ecology in the current equivalence terminology. There we have 'equivalence in difference' (Jacobson 1959), 'functional equivalence' (Jäger 1973, House 1977), 'maintenance (retention) of translation invariance on the content level' (Kade 1968), 'closet natural equivalent' (Nida 1964), 'formal equivalence (correspondence)' vs. 'dynamic equivalence' (Nida 1964), 'communicative equivalence' (Jäger 1975; Reiß 1976), 'pragmatic equivalence' (Wilss 1980; Baker 1992; Koller 1992), 'adequacy' (Reiß 1984; Puurtinen 1992); 'acceptability' (Toury 1980; Nord 1991; Puurtinen 1992); 'faithfulness', 'fidelity', 'loyalty' (Nord 1991; Puurtinen 1994), etc. We employ the term “equivalence” while comparing ST and TT in order to assess the quality of the latter.
With regard to implications of all these terms on translation quality assessment (TQA), however, two significant developments in these notions would be Nida's (1964, 1969) distinction between formal vs. dynamic equivalence, and the functionalist's orientation from referential equivalence towards pragmatic or functional equivalence.
Formal vs. Dynamic Equivalence
One of the fundamental debates on the translation equivalence, the 'literal' verses 'free' controversy, has been more or less a constant in translation studies. Nida shifts attention away from the debate of literal versus free towards the effects of different translation strategies by distinguishing 'formal equivalence', meaning the closest possible match of form and content between the ST and the TT, and 'dynamic equivalence', which is the principle of equivalence of effect on TT reader, as basic orientations, asserting that if we look at translations in terms of the receptors, rather than in terms of their respective forms, then we introduce another point of view; the intelligibility of the translation.
Formal equivalence is, of course, appropriate in certain circumstances. It is a means of providing some degree of insight into the lexical, grammatical or structural form of a source text. Orientation towards dynamic equivalence, on the other hand, is assumed to be the normal strategy. In a later work dynamic equivalence is defined as follows: “Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. This response can never be identical, for the cultural and historical settings are too different, but there should be a high degree of equivalence of response, or the translation will have failed to accomplish its purpose”.
That is to say, a translation of the Bible must not only provide information which people can understand but must present the message in such a way that people can feel its relevance (the expressive element in communication) and can then respond to it in action (the imperative function). Thus, according to Nida and Taber (1969), a normal translation should aim at the comprehension of the message of the original which is defined as 'the total meaning or content of a discourse; the concept and feelings which the author intends the reader to understand and perceive’.
Referential vs. Functional Equivalence
Functionalist approach is a kind of cover term for the research of scholars who argue that the function or purpose of the TT is the most important criterion in any translation. Referential equivalence seeks to reproduce the meaning of the words as symbols which refer to objects, events, abstracts, relations. Implicitly, such an approach is based on the assumption that normally one can imitate syntactic structures and semantic-lexical distributions fairly closely (Hönig 1998: 7).
However, the beginning of a new approach, known as functionalism, is marked by Vermeer (1978) in terms of the skopos theory. He went one step further than Reiß by placing translation firmly in the context of sociolinguistic pragmatics. Texts, according to Vermeer, are produced for defined recipients and with a defined purpose (skopos). This general principle also obtains for translations, thus they are special-cases of text-bound pragmatic acts: One of the key notions to understanding his approach is Informationsangebot (information offered), which means that the source text should no longer be seen as the 'sacred original', and the purpose of the translation can no longer be deduced from the source text but depends on the expectations and needs of the target readers. In order to translate successfully, the translator has to get acquainted with the specific situation of the recipients of his/her translation in the target culture. (Hönig 1998: 9)
Translation equivalence is now defined in terms of the function or purpose which the original text intended to achieve in a specific communicative situation. As the result, the notion of equivalence involves far more complex terms than before. Translators do not just apply linguistic rules, nor is translation a purely linguistic activity. Knowledge and methods from other disciplines, notably psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, communication studies, and even brain-physiology, are integrated into translation studies to describe the goals and activities (cf. Snell-Hornby 1988).
Transformations in Translation
A different approach was used by E. Nida who suggested that the translating process may be described as a series of transformations. The transformational model postulates that in any two languages there is a number of nuclear structures which are fully equivalent to each other. Each language has an area of equivalence in respect to the other language. It is presumed that the translator does the translating in three transformational strokes. First- the stage of analysis – he transforms the original structures into nuclear structures, i/e/ he performs transformations within SL. Second- the stage of translation proper – he replaces the SL nuclear structures with the equivalent nuclear structures in the TL. And third- the stage of synthesis - he develops the latter into the terminal structures in the text of translation.
In describing the process of translating we can explain the obtained variants as the result of the translator applying one or all of these models of acting. If, for instance, in the sentence “He is a poor sleeper” the translator sees that the attributive group cannot be directly transferred into Ukrainian, he can find that the transformational model will do the trick for him here and transform the attributive group into a verb –adverb phrase: “Він погано спить”.
Another approach to the description of the process of translating consists in the identification of different types of operations (transformations) performed by the translator. The type of transformation is identified by comparing the initial and the final texts.
The first group of transformations is characterized by imitation of the form of a word or of a collocation (transcoding and loan translation)
The second group of operations includes all types of lexical transformations involving certain semantic changes.
The third group of translating procedures comprises all types of transformations involving units of Sl grammar.
Differentiation of Meaning
Sometimes to achieve adequacy the translator must considerably change words and phrases of the original and instead of formal Ukrainian correspondences to English words and phrases he must use the functional ones. This sort of change is called “contextual substitutions” or lexical transformations. Differentiation and concrete definition of meaning is such a transformation which presupposes the word of a broader semantics being substituted for a word with narrower semantics.
The choice of a more specific word in translation which gives a more detailed description of the idea that does the word in SL is a very common case in the English-Ukrainian translating process. English often makes use of general terms to define very definite objects and actions. It is used to render such words that have one common invariant meaning, disintegrating into several particular meanings and having different correspondences in Ukrainian. For example, the word “meal” means “any occasion of taking food” and corresponds to Ukrainian “їжа”, “сніданок”, “обід”, “вечеря”. Practically concrete definitions are always accompanied by differentiation of meaning. “it is argued here that none of these criticisms is successful” “Тут робиться спроба довести, що жодне з зазначених критичних зауважень не є обґрунтованим”.
Ukrainian context usually differentiates the meaning of such English words with a so-called blurred semantics: thing affair, matter, piece, entity, unit, item, challenge, claim, fine, good, useful, to be, to go, to get.
Generalization of Meaning
It is opposite to differentiation of meaning. The meaning of such words as “foot”, “leg”, ”arm”, hand” is never differentiated in Ukrainian. Their Ukrainian correspondences are the words of generalized meaning…
“The American society was the ideal vehicle for industrialization” “Американське суспільство було ідеальним середовищем для проведення індустріалізації” “The first factories were driven by water” “Перші фабрики працювали на воді”
Semantic (logical) development of meaning (modulation) consists in using contextual correspondences instead of dictionary ones, as a logical result of the development of their notion.
Modulation involves the creation of an equivalent by replacing a unit in SL with TL unit the meaning of which can be logically deduced from it and which is just another way of referring to the same object or an aspect of the same situation.
“Additional evidence comes from comparative studies of living animals and plants” “додаткові докази можна отримати через порівняльні дослідження існуючих тварин та рослин” “Only when quantum theory became available in the 20s was it possible to understand more complicated problems” 2Лише коли в 120х роках було опрацьовано квантову теорію, стало можливим розуміння складніших проблем.
The substitute often has a cause –and –effect relationship with the original.
Semantic Development of Meaning
Semantic (logical) development of meaning (modulation) consists in using contextual correspondences instead of dictionary ones, as a logical result of the development of their notion.
Modulation involves the creation of an equivalent by replacing a unit in SL with TL unit the meaning of which can be logically deduced from it and which is just another way of referring to the same object or an aspect of the same situation.
“Additional evidence comes from comparative studies of living animals and plants” “додаткові докази можна отримати через порівняльні дослідження існуючих тварин та рослин” “Only when quantum theory became available in the 20s was it possible to understand more complicated problems” 2Лише коли в 120х роках було опрацьовано квантову теорію, стало можливим розуміння складніших проблем.
The substitute often has a cause –and –effect relationship with the original.
Antonymic Translation
Antonymic translation
There is a group of transformations which ensure the required degree of equivalence by a number of changes of both lexical and grammatical nature. A typical example of such a procedure is the so-called antonymous translating describing the situation, as it were, from the opposite point of view and rendering an affirmative SL structure by a negative TL one or vice versa.
Antonymic translation is defined as rendering of English words and statements by means of opposite, antonymic words and constructions: “keep your head up” – “не падайте духом” “mind your own business” -“не втручайтеся у чужі справи”
English negative expressions and sentences are rendered by affirmative Ukrainian ones “no time like the present” –“лови момент”, “she has a ready tongue” - “вона за словом у кишеню не полізе”
Antonymic translation is also called formal negation and may be subdivided into three groups: 1) negation (when a word or word combination without negative suffix or negative seme in its semantic structure is substituted for a word or word combination with negative suffix or negative seme in its semantic structure): to continue - не зупинятися, small –невеликий.
2) Affirmation(when a word or word combination with a negative suffix or negative seme in its semantic structure is substituted for a word or word combination without negative suffix or negative seme in its semantic structure) “unabbreviated – повний”,” unabolished – такий, що залишається чинним” “to disable – блокувати, закривати”.
3) Annulment of the two negative components available in the ST unit: not impossible - можливий, to disappear never – завжди залишатися.
Descriptive Translating
“Descriptive Translation Studies”, this term, was first put forward by James Holmes, a Holland scholar. James Holmes published a famous paper titled “The Name and Nature of Translation Studies” at the Third International Congress of Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In his paper, James Holmes made a scientific division of translatology and he argued that “translatology is divided into two branches: pure translation studies and applied translation studies; pure translation studies can be subdivided into Descriptive Translation Studies and theoretical translation study”.2 Descriptive Translation Studies includes “(1) product-oriented study; (2) process-oriented study;
Descriptive Translation Studies stresses the translation phenomena should be described objectively and no value judgment is needed, which “is of no help for people to judge the quality of the translated version, and with Descriptive Translation Studies overstated, it is of use to improve the ordinary people’s translation competence and what is worse, it will do harm to the translation practice”.
As is known to all, many translations are done not because the translator have to do so constrained by the target-cultural system but because the translators’ low linguistic and cultural competence lead to mistranslation. For the latter case, if we don’t make any kind of judgement, it will do harm to the development of translation study.
Basic Translation Devices
Basic translation devices are:
1.partitioning
2.integration
3.transposition
4.replacement
5.addition
6.omission
These devices are replied as tools to ensure adequate translation. In translation of poetry a translator is bound to use a more or less standard set of devices, which helps to convey the ideas of the source text in the best possible way.
Although the choice of particular devices depends on the text type genre and style as well as on the translation variety (oral, written, consecutive, simultaneous).
Partitioning is either replacing in translation of the source sentence by two or more target ones or converting a simple source sentence into a compound or complex target one.
Integration is an opposite of partitioning. It implies combining two or more source sentences into one target sentence. Елена Филиппьева любит все свои роли, если какую-нибудь из них не исполняет, начинает по ней скучать. - Elena Philipyeva loves her roles and even misses them should too much time pass without performing them.
Transposition is a peculiar variety of inner patitioning intransaltion meaning a change in the order of the target sentence syntactic elements (subject, predicate, and object) as compound with that of the source sentence dictated either by peculiarities of the target language syntax or by the communication intend. E.g. ниоткуда появились ведерки из под патоки – malasses buckets appeared from nowhere.
Replacement is any change in the target text at the morphological lexical and syntactic levels of the language, when the elements of certain source paradigms are replaced by different elements of target paradigms. He used to come to Italy each spring - обычно он приезжал в италию каждую весну.
The following basic types of replacements are observed in English - Russian translation:
1.replacement of noun number and verb tense and voice paradigms. e.g. replacing singular form by plural and vise verse; replacement of active voice by passive? Replacement of future by present; past by present
2.replacement of parts of speech (the most common is replacing Russian nouns by English verbs, when translating into English)
3.replacement in translation of a negative statement by an affirmative one is an efficient device called antonymous translation
Addition in translation is a device intended for the compensation of structural elements implicitly present in the source text or paradigm forms missing in the target language. (According “to Times” – по данным газеты Таймс.
Omission is reduction of the elements of the source text considered redundant from the view point of a target language structural patterns and stylistics. Omission is the opposite of addition - E.g. предложение было отвергнуто – the proposal was rejected and repudiated