3. Roman invasion and classical element in the English language

In the first century A.D. the Romans who ruled the whole civilized world at that time conquered Britain. It was a slave society divided into antagonistic classes, the slaves and the slave-owners. In 55 B.C. the Roman army crossed the Channel and invaded Britain. The Celts fought bravely for their independence, but they were not strong enough, to drive the Romans off.

Although Julius Caesar came to Britain twice in the course of two years, he was not able to conquer it. In 43 A.D. the Roman army invaded Britain and conquered the South-East. Other parts of the country were taken from time to time during the next 40 years. Straight roads were built for the legions to march quickly. They can still be found in Britain today,

The civilized Romans were city dwellers and they began to build towns, splendid villages (York, Gloucester, Lincoln, London). The Roman towns were military stations surrounded by walls for defence which were guarded by the Roman warriors.

The Romans brought the skills of reading and writing. The written word was important for spreading ideas and culture. The Latin way of life – villas, arts, language and political organizations – all vanished, however, after the invasions from Northern Europe by the Angles, Saxons and Jutes from the 5^th c. onwards.

The Romans brought Christianity to the British Isles. The pagan peoples inhabiting there were easily converted to Christianity and the preachers from Rome brought with them learning and civilization. Christianity was an important step forward as compared to the heathenish Druidical rites.

In the 3^rd – 4^th centuries the power of the Roman Empire gradually weakened. Early in the 5^th century (407) the Roman legions were recalled from Britain to defend the central provinces from the attacks of the Barbaric and Germanic Gibes.

Classical element

Latin

Such words as pear, pea, pepper, cheese, plum, butter, wine, kettle, cup, dish, line, mule are referred to the early loans.

A number of words pertain to trade. They are: cheap, pound, inch, monger (in fishmonger). We find the Latin element in geographical names: Greenwich, Woolwich, Norwich. In the 7th century some Latin borrowings appeared in the language of the church: devil, bishop, priest, monk, nun, shrine, offer, candle, monster (in Westminster), sanct.

After the Renaissance Latin words came as terms for various fields of science, such as:

1. Philosophy, mathematics and physics – diameter, fundamental, momentum, proposition, radius;

2. Words pertaining to law and government – alibi, affidavit, judicial, veto;

3. botany – mallow, petal, stamen;

4. medicine – anesthetic;

5. geographical names and topographical terms – equator, meridian, continental, tropical.

Some of these can be also traced to Greek roots.

There are some Latin abbreviations in English:

e. g. (exampli gratia) – for example,

i. e. (id est) – that is

a. m. (ante meridiem) – before noon

p. m. (post meridiem) – after noon,

etc. (et cetera) – and so on.

4. National symbols of the usa

1) Flag of the United States of America

F lag of the United States, popularly called the American flag, is the official national flag of the United States. It consists of 13 horizontal stripes, 7 red alternating with 6 white, and in the upper corner near the staff, a rectangular blue field, or canton, containing 50 five-pointed white stars. The stripes symbolize the 13 colonies that originally constituted the United States of America. The stars represent the 50 states of the Union. In the language of the Continental Congress, which defined the symbolic meanings of the colors red, white, and blue, as used in the flag, “White signifies Purity and Innocence; Red, Hardiness and Valor; and Blue, Vigilance, Perseverance and Justice.” Because of its stars, stripes, and colors, the American flag is frequently called the Star-Spangled Banner, the Stars and Stripes, or the Red, White, and Blue. Another popular, patriotic designation, Old Glory, is of uncertain origin.