Вопрос 18 Introduction of printing.

15 в.–появление книгопечатанья. Английским первопечатником был Уильям Кэкстон, уроженец Кента, долго служил в Нидерландах, где познакомился с новым изобретением. Первую книгу на а.я. “ The collection of stories about Troy» он напечатал в 1475., Распространение(spread(ing) печатных книг очень содействовало нормализации языка в области графики и орфографии. Первые грамматики а.я. строились по образцу латинских. Это – грамматики Бена Джонсона, Ч. Батлера, Дж. Уоллиса (17 в.). В грамматиках 17-18 вв lay down 2 tendenses: одни grammarian считали, что язык должен based on “разума” (“reason”), т.е. из логики. Другие считали, что при установлении правил следует исходить из существующего обычая (“usage”). Но оба эти направления не сильно отличались.

Вопрос 22 Grammar and dictionaries in 17&18 c. Первые грамматики а.я. строились по образцу латинских. Это – грамматики Бена Джонсона, Ч. Батлера, Дж. Уоллиса (17 в.). В грамматиках 17-18 вв lay down 2 tendenses: одни grammarian считали, что язык должен based on “разума” (“reason”), т.е. из логики. Другие считали, что при установлении правил следует исходить из существующего обычая (“usage”). Но оба эти направления не сильно отличались. The largest representative of the principle based on logic, R.Laut, the author of the book “ Brief introduction in English grammar ” (1758) is, this book contains a number of recommendations and prohibitions. The opposite representative is Дж. Priestley, the author of the book of " the Basis of English grammar ” (1761).

In 1795 American Lindlej Marrej has published grammar “ English Grammar ” which has got enormous authority. The first dictionaries (15в.) were bilingual english dictionaries, but in 16в. there are dictionaries of "difficult" words - Robert Kodri's dictionaries, Какрама, etc. They included archaisms and latin little-used loans.

The first explanatory dictionary has been made by Natanielem Bailey (1721г) “ the Universal etymological dictionary ”. It is very important publishing of the dictionary “ Dictionary of the English language … ” Semjuelja Johnson (1755г). It was based on works of authors befor of Restoration's epoch of the end 16-сер17в. It aspired to keep traditional spelling.

Regional varieties of E Two varieties of English in Great Britain distinguished from Standard

English-Scottish, and Anglo-Irish - claimed to be literary tongues Scottish English reemerged again into literary eminence, after a decline in the 17th c n the poetry of Robert Burns (1759-1796). The literary tradition was not given up in the 19th c.: a series of poets employed the Scottish dialect in depicting the grievances

of the common people. For the most part, however, Scottish English was used for oral intercourse by the less educated people, while a Regional Modified

Standard displaced it in other funct1Ons. As elsewhere the local dialect was transformed into a social local dialect used by the lower classes.

Despite the attempts to revive the Celtic tongue Gaelic or Irish (which was one of the major issues in the vigorous

struggle for home rule in the 19th c ) , by 190D a variety of English with a strong rish accent, known as the "brogue", had become the main lanfuage of the population

Some authorities regard Anglo-Irish as a separate geographical variant of English possessing an independent national Standard, others treat it as a locadialect. Anglo-Irish is the official language of Northern Ireland and Eire and also the language of literature, school and universities.

Geographical Expansion of the English

England's colonial expansion to the New World began in the late 16th c. when her first colonies were set up in Newfoundland (1583). later colonists came from other regions, including Scotland and Ireland. Immigrants to the Southern areas were of a higher class origin. Many immigrants from Great Britain

settled in the West Indies, which,became a part of the British Empire in the 17th c.

'The colonists spoke different dialects of English. In North America those dialects gradually blended into a new type of the language, American English; contacts with other languages, especially Spanish in the South and French in Canada, have played a certain role in its development.

The expansion of English to Asia is mainly connected with the occupation of India. India was one of the main issues in the colonial

struggle of European powers in the 18th c. In the first half of the 19th c. India became a British colony and Britain acquired other possessions in Asia, turning them into colonies, dominions or protectorates. Thus the English language extended to many areas in Asia, as the language of the state and writing.

Australia was a place of deportation of British convicts since the late 18th c. A flow of immigrants were attracted to Australia, at

first by the free grants of land, later — by the discovery of gold.

British penetration into Africa was a lengthy affair that extended over the 19th c. In consequence of financial dependence on British capital, Sudan and Egypt fell under British political control.

Written Records in Late Middle English.

The flourishing of literature, which marks the second half of the 14th c. This period of literary florescence is known as the "age of Chaucer", the greatest name in English literature before Shakespeare. Его произведения «Canter­bury Tales», «A Legend of Good Women». Of greatest linguistic consequence was the activity of John Wyclif

(1324—1384), the forerunner of the English Reformation. His most important contribution to English prose was his translation of the BIBLE completed in 1384. Лондонский диалект начала XIV в. представлен стихотворениями Адама Дэви; вторая половина произведениями Джеффри Чосера, Джона Гауэра и Джона Уиклифа. The literary texts of the late 14th c. preserved in numerous manuscripts, belong to a variety of genres^Translation continued, but originnal compositions were produced in abundance; poetry was more prolific than prose.

'John Gower, Chaucer's friend and an outstanding poet of the time,was born in Kent, but there are not many Kentisms in his London dialect. His first poems were written in Anglo-Norman and in Latin. His longest poem VOX CLAMANTIS ("The Voice of the Crying in the Wilderness"). We should mention one more poet whose name is unknown. Four feoems found in a single manuscript of the 14th c. — PEARL, PATIENCE.CLEANNESS and SIR GAWAINE AND THE GREEN KNIGHT it- have been attributed to the same author.

The poems are a blending of elaborate alliteration, in line with the OE tradition,and new rhymed |verse, with a variety of difficult rhyme schemes.

Historical Foundations of Modern English Spelling

The alphabetic way of writing was originally based on a phonetic principle: it was designed to give an accurate graphic representation of pronunciation by using letters to indicate sounds. Mod E spelling displays many deviations from this principle. The reasons are to be found in the history of English sounds. OE spelling was phonetic: They attempted to use a separate letter for each distinct sound; the sound values of the letters were for the most part the same as in Latin. Their spellings, however, were not absolutely consistent, for some letters indicated two or more sounds: the letter 3 stood for four different phonemes, c — for two; f, ძ, Þ and s indicated two allophones each (which developed into phonemes later). ME spelling innovations incorporated many sound changes which had taken place since the 9th—10th c, and spelling become more ambiguous and conventional. In many instances ; the one-to-one correspondence of letter and sound had been lost. Morel letters than before had two sound values: 0 stood for o], [u], long o and [0:]; c — for [s] and [k]; g — for [g] and [dз], etc.; u could even indicate three sounds — the vowels [u] and [y] and the consonant [v]. One and the same sound was commonly shown by different means: [dз] could be indicated by g, j or dg, [k] — by k, c and q, etc. The digraphs introduced in ME look familiar to the modern reader, since many of them are still in use, but their application in ME was rather contradictory. For instance, both ou and ow were used for [u:] and [oul; double 0 stood for the open and close long [o:] and [0:] alongside 0; long [e:l and [έ:] were shown indiscriminately by ie, double e and the single letter e. The conventional principle of spelling was later reinforced by the fixation of the written form of the word in printing and by extensive sound changes. The phoneticians and spelling reformers of the 16th c. strove to restrict the freedom of variation and to improve English orthography by a more consistent use of letters and digraphs, and by the introduction of new symbols. They insisted upon a strict distinction between u and v when used to indicate a vowel and a consonant: [u] and [v], e.g. Early NE loue, selues, vnripe, unshaken later spelt as love, selves, unripe, unshaken; They in­troduced new digraphs to show the difference between some open and close vowels, namely the digraph ea for [έ: ] as distinguished from e, ee, and ie used for the closed [e: ], and the digraph oa alongside 0 in open syllables for [o:], as contrasted to 00 showing a long closed [0:]. The use of double consonants became less frequent, except in traditional spellings like kiss, sell, but double letters were sometimes employed to show that the preceding vowel was short/ § 415. The activities of the scholars in the period of normalisation — late 17th and the 18th c. — had a stabilising effect on the development of English spelling. The dictionaries and grammars fixed the written forms of the words as obligatory standards. Only a few innovations were made: a few new digraphs were adopted with borrowed words, such as ph, ps — NE photograph, psychology, ch — NE chemistry, scheme and machine, g — genre. In the 18th c. the sound changes slowed down. Standard pronunciation (later known as RP — Received Pronunciation) and standard spell­ing were firmly established,