Вопрос 40 The evolution of weak verb.

Class I are described used as sources of modern non-standard verbs. ME verbs of Class I took the ending -de in the past without an intermediate vowel before the dental suffix — and the ending -ed in the Past Participle.

Several groups of modern non-standard verbs have developed from the weak verbs of Class I. (1) Verbs like OE sellan and txcan had an interchange in the root caused by palatal mutation in the Present tense stem and

its absence in the other stems (Past tense salde/sealde, tahte.) In ME and NE they preserved the root-vowel interchange, though some of the vowels were altered due to regular quantitative and qualitative vowel changes: ME sellen — solde ME I'so:ld9]> NE sold [sould]), techen — taughte; NE sell — sold, teach — taught.

(2) Another group of weak verbs became irregular in Early ME as a result of quantitative vowel changes. In verbs like OE cepan fedan

me tan the long vowel in the root was shortened

before two consonants in the Past and ParticipleII; OE cepte> ME kepte ['kepta]. The long vowel in the Present tense stem was preserved and was altered during the Great Vowel Shift, hence the interchange[ i : ~ e ] , NE keep — kept, feed — fed.

(3) Verbs like OE settan, with the root ending in a dental consonant, added the dental suffix without the intervening vowel [e ] — OE sette.

When the inflections were reduced and dropped, the three stems of the verbs — Present, Past and Participle II fell together: NE set —set — set;

Class 2 formed a basis of the future irregular verbs. There are some verbs joined:

1.Some verbs of 1 class weak deem-deemed.

2.3 class live-lived.

The verbs of Class II, which were marked by -ode, -od in OE, had weakened these endings to -ede, -ed in ME. In Late ME the vowel [e] in unstressed medial and final syllables became very unstable and was lost. This change eliminated the differences between the two classes and also the. distinctions between the 2nd and 3rd principal forms.

3. All borrowings (unique loan word take from сканд remains in 6 class,).

Class 3 was destroyed. We have 2 classes by the end of this process:

1. Regular (on the basis of weak)

2. Irregular: 1) all remained strong 2) weak 1кл irregular 3) weak 1кл with devocalization in the end 4) 2 remained verbs of 3 class - have, say.

Вопрос 41 The evolution of anomalous verbs

Several preterite-present verbs died out. The surviving verbs losl some of their old forms and grammatical distinctions but retained many

specific peculiarities. They lost the forms of the verbals which had sprung up in OE and the distinctions between the forms of numbei and mood in the Present tense. In NE their paradigms have been reduced to two forms or even to one.

Among the verbs of the minor groups there were several anomalous verbs with irregular forms. OE willan was an irregular verb with the meaning of volition and desire; it resembled the preterite-presents in meaning and function, as it indicated an attitude to an action and was often followed by an Infinitive. Willan had a Past tense form wolde, built like sceolde, the Past tense of the preterite-present sculan, sceal. Eventually willan became a modal verb, like the surviving preterite-presents, and, together with sculan developed into an auxiliary (NE shall, will, should, would).

Some verbs combined the features of weak and strong verbs. OE don formed a weak Past tense with a vowel interchange: and a Parti­ciple in -n: don — dyde — зe-don (NE do). OE buan 'live' had a weak Past — bude and Participle II, ending in -n, ie-bun like a strong verb.

OE sdn has had a most unusual history. In OE its Past form was built from a different root and had a weak ending: code; its Part. II ended in -n, similarly with strong verbs (ie)^dn. In ME the verb acquired a new Past tense wente, which came from an entirely different verb, OE wendan (ME wenden, NE wend). Its OE Past form wente had entered the paradigm of goon (NE go, went), while wend acquired a new past form wended. Thus the verb go remained a suppletive verb, though its OE Past was replaced by a new form (this is a rare instance of suppletion appearing at a relatively recent period of history).

The evolution of word-formation.

Ways of formation - word formation fell into two types: word derivation and word composition.

Word Derivation

Suffixation has always been the most productive way of deriving new words, most of the OE productive suffixes have survived, and many new suffixes have been added from internal and external sources.

The development of prefixation was uneven: in ME many OE prefixes fell into disuse; after a temporary decline in the 15th and 16th c. the use of prefixes grew again; like suffixes, Early NE prefixes could come from foreign sources.

The Early NE period witnessed the growth of a new, specifically English way of word derivation — conversion (also known as "functional change"), which has developed into

a productive way of creating new words.

Sound interchanges

In OE they served as a supplementary means

of word differentiation and were mostly used together with suffixes. In ME and Early NE sound interchanges continued to be used as an accompanying feature together with other derivational means. The role of sound interchanges has grown due to the weakening and loss of many suffixes and grammatical endings.

Word Stress

The role of stress in word-building has grown in ME and EarlyNE in consequence of the same changes namely the weakening and loss of final syllables.

Prefixation

During the ME period prefixes were used in derivation less frequently than before. OE prefixes were productive means of forming verbs from other verbs. The simple and derived verb were synonymous. Consequently

the prefix could be easily dispensed with. Instead of the OEpairs of synonyms, differing in the prefix, ME retained only the simple verb. Native Prefixes - Many OE verb prefixes dropped out of use, e.g. a-, to-, on-. The negative prefixes mis- and un- produced a great number of new words. OE un- was mainly used with nouns and adjectives, seldom with

verbs; New formations inME are unable, unknowen, in Early NE — unhook, unload and others; Borrowed Prefixes- In Late ME, and in Early NE new prefixes began to be employed in word derivation in English: French, Latin, and Greek. com- and sub-. French and Latin. Between the years 1200 and 1500 English borrowed many French words with the prefix re-, e.g.: ME re-dressen, re-formen. Re- was separated, as an element of the word.

The verb prefixes de- and dis- of Romance origin (French and Latin) entered the English language in many loan-words, e.g.: ME destructive, discomforten.

Suffixation

Suffixation has remained the most productive way of word derivation through all historical periods. Though some of the OE suffixes were practically dead, many new suffixes developed from native and foreign sources.Native suffixes - suffixes:)Several OE suffixes of agent nouns -end (friend), -ere(fiscere) were lost as means of derivation; in ME -end, -en, -estre occur as inseparable parts of the stem.

The old suffixes of abstract nouns -ap, -op, -p, had long been dead in ME. The suffix -ness was equally productive in all historical periods. It was mainly used with adjectival stems, irrespective of their origin: ME derkness,, NE narrowness, (native stems); MEcleerness, NE politeness (borrowed stems).

new suffixes derived from noun root morphemes - A new suffix -man, developed from a root-morpheme in ME. Borrowed Suffixes - borrowed suffixes entered the English language with the two biggest waves of loan-words: French loans in ME and classical loans in Early NE. French loan-words with the suffix –able (agreeable). In Late ME the suffix -able began

to be used in adjective derivation — at first with Romance stems —admittable. The French suffix -ess produced many derivatives in ME, as it had replaced the native -estre; e.g.: ME authoress. The suffix -or (from Fr) resembled the native suffix –er.

The evolution of nouns. The rise of the articles

OE The OE noun had two grammatical categories: number and case. There were five major cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, and instrumental.Общее количество типов склонения 7: 1) гласные основы: -a-, -ō-, -i-, -u-, 2) основы на согласный: -n-, -s-, -r-.OE nouns distinguished three genders: Masc., Fem. and Neut. Old English nouns are divided as either strong or weak. Weak nouns have their own endings. In general, weak nouns are easier than strong nouns, since they had begun to lose their declensional system. Strong (a,o,i,u -stem). Weak decl - n -m,f,n. es -n. room-stem (Root-stemm formed some cases not by an inflexional ending, but by the chance of the root vowel due to mutation)-no form suffixes. Mutation was used to define number and gender of noun. Stem - part of the word comparasing(connected) root and stem.

ME – Noun have no gender. 2 group exist in ME in Pl form. The one is the former a-declention and n-decl, which of former feminine noun( weak decl). The root-decl. has lost some words, but it cont to exist. The noun has 2 cases: the Common and Possessive. The weak decl. has no case forms at all. Noun was rejected into reduction of their flexion. All vowels endings –e-. OE a-stem, became the productive type. Grammatical gender was lost and difference between Weak and Strong decl. disappeared. (-n)/: -s- became for Pl all nouns (for G). Some nouns retain Pl with o-inflexions. For root-stem nouns their mutated forms were used only in Pl. Weak decl. –n- express the Pl.

The rise of the articles is English Causes: 1.loss of strong & weak declensions of adjectives - articles wereemployed to show definiteness & indefiniteness. 2.word order: It is a book. The book is interesting. Definite articles -> mascul, singular "se" Indefinite article -> an (= one)(numeral). It had 5 case declension -> in. Middle English cases were lost, 13th century an > oon/one -> a/an

The evolution or pronoun. OE Pronouns in OE were subdivided into following categories: personal (now I, you), demonstr (this, that), interrogative (who, which), possesive (my, his), indefinite (one, some), negative (no+body). In OE personal pron. Had 3 persons, 1,2 had 3 numbers: Sg, Pl, dual. 3P. Sg, Pl had 3 genders in Sg. – m,f,n. ME – Person. Pron 1P change Ich into Early NE I. 2P –ME thou/thow into NE -thou/ye, 3P –ME m-he, f-he/she, n-hit, it into NE – he, she, it. The forms of the dual number of the 1st and 2nd p. went into disuse in Early ME. two cases fell together— Dat. and Ace. — into what may be called the Obj. case but its distinction from the Nom. case was preserved. In Late ME the paradigm of personal pronouns consisted of two cases: Nom. and Obj.

The OE Gen. case of personal pronouns split from the other forms and turned into a new class of pronouns — possessive. In ME possessive pron lost thir declention. Some possessive pronouns had two variant forms in ME: myne/my,our(e)/ours, etc.

Appears a new type of pron – reflexive. The appeared from oblique case-forms of personal pronouns+ME Possesive+ adjective self.

Demonstrative Pronouns. There were two demonstrative pronouns in OE: the prototype of NE that, which distinguished three genders in the sg. And had one form for all the genders in the pl. and the prototype of this. They were declined like adjectives according to a five-case system: Nom., Gen., Dat., Acc., and Instr. In ME they lost category of case and gender, preserve only number. The0theo-thes-this –Sg and these-Pl. Weak form of Dem. Pron was used as a definite of the noun/formal indicator of noun. . The rise of the articles is English Causes: 1.loss of strong & weak declensions of adjectives - articles were employed to show definiteness & indefiniteness. 2.word order: It is a book. The book is interesting. Definite articles -> mascul, singular "se" in the 13th c. the uninflected oon/one and their reduced forms an/a Indefinite article -> an (= one)(numeral). It had 5 case declension -> in. Middle English cases were lost, 13th century an > oon/one -> a/an

OE demonstrative and interrogative pronouns became thesource of a new type of pronouns — relative.Relative pron – joined in subordinate clauses(from interog. Pron)

Вопрос 39 The evolution of adjective. In OE the adjective was declined to show the gender, case and number of the noun it modified; it had a five-case paradigm and two types of declension, weak and strong. In ME lost all its grammatical categories with the exception of the degrees of comparison. The first category to disappear was Gender, which ceased to be distinguished by the adjective in the 11th c.

The number of cases shown in the adjective paradigm was reduced: the Instr. case had fused with the Dat. by the end of OE; In the 13th c. case could be shown only by some variable adjective endings in the strong declension (but not by the weak forms); towards the end of the century all case distinctions were lost.

Adjectives lost agreement with the noun, but the weak ending -e still remained.

Degrees of Comparison - In OE the forms of the comparative and the superlative degree, like

all the grammatical forms, were synthetic: they were built by adding the suffixes -ra and -estl-ost, to the form of the positive degree. In ME the comparative degree is formed with the suffix -er, and superlative with the suffix – est.

The alternation of root-vowels in Early NE survived in the adjective old, elder, eldest, where the difference in meaning from older, oldest, made the formal distinction essential.

The evolution of consonant English consonants were on the whole far more stable than vowels. A large number of consonants have probably remained unchanged through all historical periods. Thus we can assume that the sonorants [m, n, l], plosives [p,b, t, d] and also [k, g] in most positions have not been subjected to any noticeable changes. The most important developments in the history of English consonants were the growth of new sets of sounds, - affricates and sibilants.

Growth of sibilants and affricates

In OE there were no affricates and no sibilants, except [s, z]. the new type of consonants developed from OE palatal plosives [k’, g’], which had split from the corresponding velar plosives [k] and [g], and also from the consonant cluster [sk’]. The three new phonemes which arose from these sources were [t∫], [dз] and [∫]. In Early ME they began to be indicated by special letters and digraphs, which came into use mainly under the influence of the French scribal tradition – ch, tch, g, dg, sh, ssh, sch. As a result of these changes – and also as a result of the vocalization of [γ] – the consonant system in Late ME was in some respects different from the OE system.

Palatal sonsonant finished palatalization: k-g, sk-∫ -sh. All palatal consonants disappeared. There was some dropping(сочетание) of consonants in initial position before sonorant. Hlof-lof, hlafa-lord. In Southern dialect –f- in initial position turn into –v-. Vocalization of -з- in the initial position before front vowel. з- formed new diphthong after front vowels. з – j –initial, з – I – final. (dæз –day [ai], weз – wei [ei], fæзer –fair [ai] –middle position)

NE From the combination of /ng/ appeared a phoneme / ŋ/.

Loss of consonants in some groups: Voiceless velar fricative lost in /night/; pronounced as f in /laugh/. [b] dropped in final -mb cluster (dumb, comb). [l] dropped between[ a] or [o] and consonant (half, walk, talk, folk). [r] dropped sometimes before [s] (Worcestershire). [k] and [g] dropped before/n/in initial position (knee, knight, gnat-nat). [g] in -ing endings (more commonly pronounced [ɪn]). Finally, assibilation occurred when the alveolars [s], [d], [t], and [z] preceded the palatal glide [j], producing the palatal consonants: [š], [ǰ], [č], [ž]. Zj-ж(decision), tj-ч(nature), dj-dз(solder). /w/dropped before /r/ in the initial position(wright-right). /h/ is dropped in the middle position –which-wich. /p/ is not pronounced in the initial position –physiology. NE vocalization of /r/(diphton-on) between the vowel and /r/ appeared, then /r/ was reduced(сокращена). Results: /e:/-/i:/-/iэ/-here, dear. /з:/-/e:/-/зэ/bear and /iэ/-clear. /a:/-/ei:/-/зэ/ -care, dare. /o:/-/u:/-/uэ/-poor, moor.

Subject matter and aims. Sources of lang history. Subject is the historical development of E. language: phonetic structure and spelling, evolution of grammatical system and growth of vocabulary, so as to understand a current status of language, we should to examine each phenomenon of modern language as known result of long historical development.

Language constantly develops under the certain laws. The law of development of Language: The Law of gradual transition of language from one quality to another, thus elements of new quality slowly collect, and elements of old quality slowly die off.

All the modern languages trace their roots back to great antiquity. It means, that elements of modern English language laid during period, when the tribes of Angles, Saxones and Utes still lived on the European continent, long before 5-th century A.D. Since that time the grammatical system of language slowly changed, and its vocabulary structure contained new words. These changes occurred in close relations with development of the society. The Manufacture began to develop, the states are appeared, there was a literature and writing, and the printing-press has been invented.

The aims – we should achieved both theretical and practical eimes So, one of the aims is to provide the student with a knowledge of linguistic history sufficient to account for the principal features of present-day English. For example, through centuries writing and spelling was changing in English. At the time when Latin letters were first used in Britain (7th c.) writing was phonetic: the letters stood for the same sound. After the introduction of printing (15th c.) the written form of the word became fixed, while the sounds continued to change. Another important aim of this course is of a more theoretical nature. While tracing the evolution of the English language through time, the student will be confronted with a number of theoretical questions such as the relationship between statics and dynamics in language, the role of linguistic and extralinguistic factors and so on. One more aim of this course is to provide the student of English with a wider philological outlook. The history of the English language shows the place of English in the linguistic world.

Germanic invasion. Formation of the G. states The 5^th c. was the age of increased Germanic expansion. The history of the English language begins with the invasion of the British Isles by Germanic tribes in the 5th c. of our era. Newcomers were of the 3 races of Germany: the Saxons, the Angles and Jutes. Angels and Saxons the were called by Romans and by celts – Angelcyn. And their conqued territories Angelcunes land. The story of the invasion is told by Bede (673-735), a monastic scholar who wrote the first history of England, HISTORIA ECCLESIASTICA GENTIS ANGLORUM. According to Bede, the invaders came to Britain in A.D. 449 under the leadership of two Germanic kings, Hengist and Horsa. The first wave of invaders, the Jutes or the Frisians, occupied the extreme south-east: Kent and the Isle of Wight. The second wave of immigrants was largely made up of the Saxons, who had been expanding westwards across Frisia to the Rhine and to what is known as Normandy. The Saxons consolidated into a number of petty kingdoms, the largest and the most powerful of them was Wessex. Last came the Angles from the lower valley of the Elbe and southern Denmark. They made their landing on the east coast and moved up the rivers to the central part of the island. Angles founded large kingdoms: East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria.

Вопрос 3 The Scandinavian invasion&influens upon English. In the 8^th century Scandinavian Danes made their 1^st attacks on England. He struggle lasted over 300 years. Then King Alfred proclaimed peace treaty of 878. England was divided into halves: the north-eastern (Danish) and called Danelagh. And south-western (Wessex). But in 10 century 1013 Danish attacked again headed by Sweyn and Canute. And Canute was a king of England. Under Canute death 1035 England became independent. A most important role in the history of the English language was played by the introduction of Christianity. It gave a strong impulse to the growth of culture and learning. Monasteries were founded all over the country with monastic schools attached. Religious services and teaching were conducted in Latin. Thus due to the introduction of Christianity the English language acquired much influence from Latin. Influence- The Germanic tribes in 5^th and 6^th c. spoke closely related tribal dialects belonging to the west-Germanic subgroup. Their original tongue transformed into single English tongue. Next – feudal system and a new phase in dialects. (Kentish, West Saxon, Mercian, Northumblian)

Вопрос 4 Norman Conquest. The struggle Eng&French. After Canute death, Edward was king of England. In 1066, upon Edward’s death, the Elders of England proclaimed Harold Godwin king of England. As soon as the news reached William of Normandy, he mustered (gathered) a big army by promise of land and, with the support of the Pope, landed in Britain. In the battle of Hastings, fought in October 1066, Harold was killed and the English were defeated. This date is commonly known as the date of the Norman Conquest. After their battle, William crown king and then he called the Conqueror.

After a Norman conquest both secular and church power completely belongs to Normans. The population of cities was mixed: it included both English, and Norman handicraftsmen (ремесл). The ruling class was feudal aristocracy and clergy - consisted of people of a Norman origin. The local population, both in countrysides, and in the cities continued to speak in English.

The struggle between English and French. Однако, английский был не единственным языком, на котором говорили и писали после нормандского завоевания. Как сказано выше, победители принесли с собою французский язык; точнее, его северный диалект - нормандский. В течение ближайших после за­воеваний столетий в Англии образовался так называемый англо-нормандский диалект. В течение XII-XIII вв. англо-нормандский был государственным языком Англии. , третьим языком, функционировавшим в стране, была латынь, которая в Англии, как и во всей Западной Европе, была языком церковного обихода и языком науки. Таким образом, в Англии сосу­ществовали три языка: английский, французский (англо-норманд­ский) и латынь. Первым государственным документом, написанным на англий­ском языке, была Прокламация Генриха III (1258 г.). Она напи­сана на лондонском диалекте. преподавание в школах начинает вестись на английском; впервые английский язык стал изредка звучать в парламенте, К концу XIV в. английский окончательно стал государственным языком.

Old E. dialects. OE written record.

Германцы образовали семь королевств; это были Нортумбрия, Мерсия, Восточ­ная Англия, Эссекс, Суссекс и Уэссекс и Кент. Эти семь государств объединились в четыре основных королевства - Нортумбрию, Мерсию, Уэссекс и Кент, в гра­ницах которых образовались четыре диалекта: нортумбрийский, мер­сийский, уэссекский и кентский.

Old English developed into four major dialects: Northumbrian, Mercian; Kentish, and West Saxon.

Old English written records – The 1^st was runic alphabet consist of 24 sighs, contain only vertical and inclined lines. After 1^st 6 letter this alphabet is called FUTHARK. It is found only two best known runi inscription:(the Ruthwell Cross). And the 2^nd Frank Casket. The total number of inscriptions is 40. Monuments of writing share on prosaic and poetic. Уэссекский диалект. «Англосаксонская хроника». Она су­ществует в виде ряда параллельных chronicls, начиная с 7 в. Наиболее важной является так называемая «Паркеровская хроника», которая велась до конца 9 в.на уэссекском диалекте. К 9 в. относятся переводы, сделанные королем Альфредом: 1) «Сurа Pastoralis» («Забота пастыря») -произведение папы Gregory I. К 10 в. относятся the works priest Эльфрика (проповеди, пере­вод «Искусства грамматики» и др.); к 11 в.- the Homilies of Wulstan. Мерсийский диалект. The translations of Psalter (IX в.), glosses (8 в.) и church гимны. Нортумбрийский диалект. 2 runic inscriptions, опи­санные выше; The Gospel was translated by latin, Bede’s HISTORIA ECCLESIASTICA GENTIS ANGLORUM (written in Latin in the 8th c.) contains and English fragment of five lines known as “Bede’s Death Song” and a religious poem of nine lines, “Cadmon’s Hymn”.Написана на латинском и в IX в. она была переведена на древнеан­глийский переводчиками школы короля Альфреда. Поэтические памятники. The greatest poem of that time was BEOWULF, an epic of the 7th or 8th c. автор которой не­известен; The poems of monc Кюневульфа - «Helen», « Juliana», «Andrew»; Main Peculiarities of OE poetry1.Old Germanic alliterative verse.2. The Sines are not rhymed.3. The number of the syllables to a line is free, but the number of stressed syllables is fixed.4. Each line is divided intoo 2 halves and each half begins with one and the same sound.5. There are at least 2 stressed syllables in a line, one in each half.6. Metaphorical phrases.

Вопрос 6 Chronological division in the Hof E lang. Traditional periodization divides E into 3 periods: OE, ME, NE. OE begins with Germanic setlments of Britaine(5^th c)or with the beginning of writtin(7) and ends with Norman Conquest.(1066). ME –with Norman Conquest and ends on the introduction of printing (1475). So then start NE and lasts to the present day. Some authors called them – early, classixal and late. The 1^st period, which may be termed Early Old English. It is the stage of the tribal dialects of the West Germanic invaders, which were gradually losing contacts with the related continental tongues. The tribal dialects were used for oral communication, there being no written form of English. The 2^ndperiod OE/Anglo-Saxon extends from the 8th c. till the end of the 11th. The tribal dialects gradually changed into local or regional dialects. The language of this period is usually described synchronically and is treated as a more or less stable system. The 3^rd period, known as Early Middle English, starts after 1066, the year of the Norman Conquest, and covers the 12th, 13th and half of the 14th c. It was the stage of the greatest dialectal divergence caused by the feudal system and by foreign influences – Scandinavian and French. Under Norman rule the official language in England was French, or rather its variety called Anglo-French or Anglo-Norman; it was also the dominant language of literature. (from syntactic into analytic). The 4^th period – from the later 14th c. till the end of the 15th – known the age of Chaucer, Classical ME. It was the time of literary flourishing. The main dialect used in writing and literature was the mixed dialect of London. H. Sweet called this period” leveled endings”, because most of inflections in the nominal system had fallen together. The 5^th period is called Early New English, lasted from the introduction of printing to the age of Shakespeare. The first printed book in English was published by William Caxton in 1475. This period was also a time of sweeping changes at all levels, in the first place lexical and phonetic. The 6^th period extends from the mid-17th c. to the close of the 18th c. In the history of the language it is often called “the age of normalization and correctness. The 18th c. has been called the period of “fixing the pronunciation”. The great sound shifts were over and pronunciation was being stabilized. Word usage and grammatical construction were subjected to restriction and normalization. The 7^th period in the history of English. It is called Late New English or Modern English. The 20th c. witnessed considerable intermixture of dialects. The local dialects were retreated and displaced by Standard English. The English vocabulary has grown.