Self-esteem is a term used in psychology to reflect a person's overall evaluation or appraisal of his or her own worth. Self-esteem encompasses beliefs (for example, "I am competent", "I am worthy") and emotions such as triumph, despair, pride and shame. Self-esteem can apply specifically to a particular dimension (for example, "I believe I am a good writer and I feel happy about that") or have global extent (for example, "I believe I am a bad person, and feel bad about myself in general").
Psychologists usually regard self-esteem as an enduring personality characteristic ("trait" self-esteem), though normal, short-term variations ("state" self-esteem) also exist.
Synonyms or near-synonyms of self-esteem include: 'self-worth', 'self-regard', 'self-respect', and 'self-integrity'. According to The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, "self-love" is "the instinct or desire to promote one's well-being".
Branden’s description of self-esteem includes the following primary properties:
self-esteem as a basic human need, i.e., "...it makes an essential contribution to the life process", "...is indispensable to normal and healthy self-development, and has a value for survival."
self-esteem as an automatic and inevitable consequence of the sum of individuals' choices in using their consciousness
something experienced as a part of, or background to, all of the individuals thoughts, feelings and actions.
Branden's concept of self-esteem is graduated, involving three main levels:
To have a high self-esteem is to feel confidently capable for life, or, in Branden's words, to feel able and worthy, or to feel right as a person.
To have a low self-esteem corresponds to not feeling ready for life, or to feeling wrong as a person.
To have a middle ground self-esteem is to waver between the two states above, that is, to feel able and useless, right and wrong as a person, and to show these incongruities in behavior, acting at times wisely, and at rashly others, thus reinforcing insecurity.
Implicit self-esteem refers to a person's disposition to evaluate themselves positively or negatively in a spontaneous, automatic, or unconscious manner. It contrasts with explicit self-esteem, which entails more conscious and reflective self-evaluation. Both explicit self-esteem and implicit self-esteem are subtypes of self-esteem proper. Implicit self-esteem is assessed using indirect measures of cognitive processing, including the Name Letter Task Such indirect measures are designed to reduce awareness of, or control of, the process of assessment. When used to assess implicit self-esteem, they feature stimuli designed to represent the self, such as personal pronouns (e.g., "I") or letters in one's name.
Variations
Level and quality of self-esteem, though correlated, remain distinct. One can exhibit low levels of high-quality self esteem and/or high levels of low-quality self esteem, resulting in 'fragile' self-esteem (as in narcissism) or low but stable self-esteem (as in humility). However, investigators can indirectly assess the quality of self-esteem in several ways:
in terms of its constancy over time (stability)
in terms of its independence of meeting particular conditions (non-contingency)
in terms of its ingrained nature at a basic psychological level (implicitness or automatized)
Positive indicators
People with a healthy level of self-esteem
firmly believe in certain values and principles, and are ready to defend them even when finding opposition, feeling secure enough to modify them in light of experience.
are able to act according to what they think to be the best choice, trusting their own judgement, and not feeling guilty when others don't like their choice.
do not lose time worrying excessively about what happened in the past, nor about what could happen in the future. They learn from the past and plan for the future, but live in the present intensely.
fully trusts in their capacity to solve problems, not hesitating after failures and difficulties. They ask others for help when they need it.
consider themselves equal in dignity to others, rather than inferior or superior, while accepting differences in certain talents, personal prestige or financial standing.
take for granted that he is an interesting and valuable person for others, at least for those with whom he has a friendship.
resist manipulation, collaborate with others only if it seems appropriate and convenient.
admits and accepts different internal feelings and drives, either positive or negative, revealing those drives to others only when they choose.
are able to enjoy a great variety of activities.
are sensitive to feelings and needs of others; respect generally accepted social rules, and claim no right or desire to prosper at others' expense.
Negative indicators
A person with low self-esteem may show some of the following symptoms:
Heavy self-criticism, tending to create a habitual state of dissatisfaction with oneself.
Hypersensitivity to criticism, which makes oneself feel easily attacked and experience obstinate resentment against critics.
Chronic indecision, not so much because of lack of information, but from an exaggerated fear of making a mistake.
Excessive will to please: being unwilling to say "no", out of fear of displeasing the petitioner.
Perfectionism, or self-demand to do everything attempted "perfectly" without a single mistake, which can lead to frustration when perfection is not achieved.
Neurotic guilt: one is condemned for behaviors which not always are objectively bad, exaggerates the magnitude of mistakes or offenses and complains about them indefinitely, never reaching full forgiveness.
Floating hostility, irritability out in the open, always on the verge of exploding even for unimportant things; an attitude characteristic of somebody who feels bad about everything, who is disappointed or unsatisfied with everything.
Defensive tendencies, a general negative (one is pessimistic about everything: life, future, and, above all, oneself) and a general lack of will to enjoy life.
Interventions
A number of interventions that attempt to improve self-esteem have been developed, implemented, and studied. These interventions have been tailored to address the unique characteristics of specific groups including adolescents, adults, and special populations. Some examples of these interventions include:
FRIENDS Emotional Health Program - This intervention consists of 10 sessions that focus on teaching 9-10 year old children to replace unhelpful and anxiety producing thoughts with helpful thoughts. The intervention was developed to teach children to face and overcome challenges and problems. In order to do this children are introduced to a 7-step process: F-feeling worried? R- relax and feel good, I- inner thoughts, E- explore thoughts, N- nice work so reward yourself, D- don't forget to practice, S- stay calm, you know how to cope. Studies of the intervention performed in the US, UK, and Hong Kong have all shown significant increase in measures of self-esteem in children who participated in the program.
Self-Esteem Enhancement Program (SEEP) Dalgas-Pelish reported that many decreases in self-esteem have been observed during the transition from elementary to middle school and therefore found that it is very important to provide preventative self-esteem interventions at a young age. The intervention included 4 lessons consisting of definitions of self-esteem, awareness of how the media and peers influence self-esteem, and activities related to the improvement of self-esteem. Factors affecting self-esteem that were taken into account include: gender, ethnicity, age, socioeconomic status, genetic size, health, home environment, relationships with parents, parenting style, and relationships with friends. Increases in measures of self-esteem were displayed among the children who participated. Increase was related to gender of the child, socioeconomic status, and the presence of friends. The largest increases were seen in girls, individuals with low socio-economic status, and children with friends.[20]
Social Cognitive Training Intervention Barrett, Webster, Wallis developed an intervention that consisted of self talk and modification of negative thinking, use of positive thinking, communication, problem solving and perception, processes of instruction, coaching, modeling, rehearsal, self observation, group trainer and peer feedback, and praise. These techniques were intended to shape and reinforce new and improved skills. Participants also completed weekly homework assignments. Fifty-one students ages 13–16 participated in the intervention and showed significant increase in measures of self-esteem.
I Am Super Self-Esteem Module - This intervention was developed in Québec, Canada by Tania Lacomte and colleagues in an effort to increase the self esteem of those suffering from psychosis, specifically individuals diagnosed with Schizophrenia. This 24 session, group therapy module is divided into 5 building blocks that assist individuals in developing their senses of: security, identity, belonging, purpose, and competence. One study conducted by Borras, et al. (2009) found that intervention participants displayed increases in self-esteem, self-assertion, and coping strategies as well as decreased negative automatic thoughts, and psychotic symptoms