In the Introduction the major linguistic problems of dictionary-making arc outlined; some of the linguistic/lexicographical terms are explained; and points for discussion are formulated.

The Reader contains excerpts from the books on lexicography by well-known linguists and lexicographers. The scope of the present manual, however, allows for a

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very limited choice of reading matter and the compiler docs not claim ю ш exhaustive survey of the work done in the field.

As the texts have been selected from different sources and different publisher? we did not attempt to unify the different signs, symbols, labels, abbreviations, and reference material. The authenticity of the texts is preserved.

The texts are meant for discussion as well as for the development of the skills, involved in dictionary writing.

The list of Recommended Dictionaries acquaints the students with various types of English dictionaries.

I wish to thank the reviewers, Professor Arnold Mikhnevich and Associate Professor Tatyana Karaicheva, for their valuable suggestions. 1 would also like to acknowledge Professor Clifford Hallam for his remarks and corrections.

I am grateful to Galina Kulbatskaya, Olga Petrova and Eugene Sologtibov, whose assistance in typing the manuscript greatly facilitated publication.

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Introduction

Lexicography is defined as the theory and practice of dictionary-making. It is a scientific discipline which studies dictionaries, their forms, structures, and uses, their criticism and history, their position in society; the methodology and procedures of their compilation and their underlying theoretical stances Lexicography is a branch of applied linguistics.

Dictionary-making is as old as man's concern with written communication. The object of lexicography is to systematize the vocabulary (lexicon) of a language and its items: words, set expressions, cliches, idioms, proverbs, sayings, quotations, etc.

A good deal of research has been done in the field of lexicography, and it is possible to outline the following directions within it:

dictionary history '

dictionary typology

dictionary research

dictionary criticism

dictionary use

dictionary-making

Lexicography is an area where different branches of linguistic science meet, thus forming its theoretical basis. The closest ties, however, are observed between lexicography and lexicology. The emergence of lexicology as a branch of linguistics is closely connected with the needs of dictionary-making and neither of the two branches of linguistics could develop independently. Both lexicology and lexicography deal with the vocabulary (lexicon) of the language, their common aim being systematization. The vocabulary of a language is registered in numerous and various dictionaries which reflect different systematic ties of lexical units.

D. Crystal in the Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language -лт-г» that "lexicographers need to have had some training in lexicology if they are io ^o. up with good dictionaries. Vocabulary is the Everest of language and there is то larger task than to look for order among the hundreds of thousands of words wrv! comprise the lexicon'" (Crystal 1995, 116).

The principles of dictionary-making are based on certain Imguisrw fundamentals. Lexicographers sort and present the material in dictionaries depend^ upon their views concerning the vocabulary system.

Today lexicographers are quite aware of the relevance and contribution ;■ linguistic studies to dictionary ^making. Various aspects and problems of rhi? interrelationship are considered in linguistic literature. Specifically, the ma-.г lexicological problems include:

— the problem of sameness and separateness of the word, : z the problem of the identification of the word;

- the problem of word-meaning;

• the semantic and functional classification of words;

• the stylistic and social differentiation and stratification of the vocabulary.

• the regional differentiation of the vocabulary;

• the problem of semantic equivalence of lexical items in differer.-languages, etc.

The above-mentioned problems are connected with the following lexico­graphical problems:

• the selection of lexical items for inclusion;

• the selection of head-words;

• the arrangement of lexical items: derivatives, compounds, phrasal verbs, idioms, abbreviations, proper names, place names, etc.;

• the selection and arrangement of word-meanings;

• the semantic equivalence in a bilingual dictionary.

• stylistic and usage labels:

The debatable linguistic (lexicological) issues that have a direct impact on the work of lexicographers may be formulated as follows:

• the concept of the lexeme;

• the concept of the word (the status of multi-word units, abbrevations, acronyms, clippings, etc.);

• the concept of the compound;

• the concept of a set expression / phraseological unit / idiom;

• polysemy vs. homonymy.

Let us expand on some of the problems. First, it is common knowledge that in presenting their information dictionaries differ. In the dictionaries of the English language derivatives, compounds, phrasal verbs, etc., may be main entries in one dictionary but sub-entries in another; geographical names, abbreviations, word elements, etc., may be in appendices in one dictionary, and interspersed through the main text in another.

Second, any language, English in particularly, contains lexical items the use of which is restricted in this or that way. Certain words (common/neutral) can be used in any situation and in any form of the language (written or spoken), while the other words or meanings are used mainly in particular social contexts, or by particular groups of people. This differentiation is reflected in dictionaries. And while the former are not marked in dictionaries in any way, the latter are given stylistic and usage labels. However, dictionaries differ in this aspect as well. Tims, in the dictionaries of the English language (see Recommended Dictionaries) we find the following labels:

appreciative informal

approving ironical

archaic jocular

Bible (biblical) literary

colloquial obsolete

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dated	old use
derogatory	pejorative
dialectal	poetic
emotive	pompous
emphatic	rare
euphemistic	rhetorical
figurative	slang
formal	taboo
historical	technical
humorous	vulgar

Some terms may be viewed as synonymous as they name the same linguistic

entity.

The existing difference between the terms can be explained by the fact that the boundaries'between separate layers of words are not clearly defined. Very often the layers overlap and present fuzzy sets, so it is difficult to decide whether a word belongs to one layer or another. Moreover, dictionaries are compiled by human beings; consequently, the presence of subjectivism is inevitable. In this case lexicographers face the problem of consistency of the adequate terms and conventions. Nowadays, lexicographers are acutely aware of the importance of communicating with the user on the understanding of these conventions, which often involve knowledge of a limited лшяЬег of linguistic facts and principles.

Also, British and American dictionaries treat regional variants of the English language differently.

The above-mentioned and other linguistic problems are considered in the Reader,

The excerpts in the Reader give students an insight into the experience of lexicographers and a better understanding of the linguistic problems in their relation

:: lexicography. The following problems are considered in the Reader, thus re\ealing the linguistic basis of lexicography:

• the structure and contents of a general theory of lexicography;

• lexicography as theory and practice of dictionary-making;

• ^ьЧекракЧ ^\u^\togra0fi\! wn^ranguuge ieacYimg anulanguagelearning;

• the dictionary' as a reference book and as a teaching aid;

• lexicography and its links with the other branches of linguistics;

• the lexeme as the basic unit in dictionary-making;

• the provision of grammatical information and the principles of its arrangement (grammatical words, patterns, etc.);

• encyclopedic information in general-purpose dictionaries;

• regional varieties of the English vocabulary and their reflection in dtctionanes;

• stylistic and social differentiation of the English vocabulary and its reflection in dictionaries;

• the semantic structure of the lexicon and the dictionary;

• contrastive linguistics and bilingual lexicography,

• semantic equivalence in translation (bilingual) dictionaries;

• culture-bound words and their translation in bilingual dictionaries;

• the metalanguage of lexicography.

Key Terms:

applied linguistics the application of linguistics to I) the study and improvement of language teaching and learning, 2) language planning, 3) communication between groups, 4) speech therapy and the management of language handicap, 5) systems of communications, 6) translating and interpreting, and 7) lexicography; 11

concordance axi alphabetical index of the pnncipal words in a book, such

as the Bible or the complete works of an author (Shakespeare, Pushkin, Skaryna, etc.);

cross-reference a reference to another part of the dictionary (another entry or a particular definition of an entry). If information is in another place than under the item consulted, a direct cross-reference is used; for example, in a British dictionary, the undefined entry color is cross-referred to colour in the following way (see colour). If more information is available at another place, a see also cross-reference is used;

defining vocabulary a core set of words used to define other words in the dictionary;

dictionary

a book, listing words of a language with their meanings and often with data regarding pronunciation, usage and origin;

dictionary typology classification of dictionaries into types according to certain principles or criteria;

DSNA Dictionary Society of North America, An American and

Canadian association founded in 1975, and concerned with lexicography, dictionary-making, and dictionary use. It publishes a newsletter and the journal Dictionaries;

encyclopedia a book or a set of books, giving information about every'

branch of knowledge, or on one subject, with articles in ABC order;

entry the headword, together with its article (including definitions,

derivatives, pronunciations, examples of usage, etc.);

EURALEX European Association fur Lexicography. An association

founded in 1983 to promote scholarly and professional 12

activities related to lexicography. Tt publishes a Newsletter, and supports The International Journal of Lexicography (Oxford University Press) and Lexicographica (International Annual and Series Maior, Tubingen, Germany);

gloss any definition, explanation or interpretation of a word or

phrase, especially if it is unusual or foreign;

glossary an alphabetical list of the terms used in a special field; a

collection of glosses;

headword the first word, in heavy type, of a dictionary entry;