Repeated offence

In Russia Mikhail Khodorkovsky, once boss of the Yukos oil company and avowed enemy of Vladimir Putin, went on trial for a second time. He is charged with embezzling Yukos’s oil. The defence claimed the trial was political: without it, Mr Khodorkovsky would have been released in two years’ time. See article

A prominent Chechen, Sulim Yamadayev, was reportedly shot dead in Dubai. Mr Yamadayev had fallen out with Chechnya’s president, Ramzan Kadyrov. He would be the fourth well-known opponent of Mr Kadyrov’s to be killed since September.

A new surge

At a conference in The Hague, nearly 90 countries and organisations welcomed America’s new strategy to deal with extremism in Afghanistan and Pakistan. This would combine more troops and aid with a more intense regional diplomatic effort. Iran said it would be ready to help. See article

Pakistan’s police recaptured a police academy that had been taken over by terrorists in Lahore. The head of the Pakistan Taliban claimed responsibility and said it was in retaliation for an American drone attack. America sent another drone into Pakistan, reportedly killing 12 people. Earlier, a suicide-bomber killed scores of people at a mosque near the border with Afghanistan. See article

Researchers at the University of Toronto said they had found that almost 1,300 government-owned computers in 103 countries had been infected by spyware and other secret eavesdropping devices. Their report said circumstantial evidence pointed to China as the culprit. See article

Varun Gandhi, a member of India’s main political dynasty, was charged with attempted murder and rioting during the election campaign. Mr Gandhi had defected from the family’s Congress party and was standing for the opposition Bharatiya Janata Party. See article

3.5.1 Basic Notions of Semantics

A perennial problem in semantics is the delineation of its subject matter. The term meaning can be used in a variety of ways, and only some of these correspond to the usual understanding of the scope of linguistic or computational semantics. We shall take the scope of semantics to be restricted to the literal interpretations of sentences in a context, ignoring phenomena like irony, metaphor, or conversational implicature [Gri75,Lev83].

A standard assumption in computationally oriented semantics is that knowledge of the meaning of a sentence can be equated with knowledge of its truth conditions: that is, knowledge of what the world would be like if the sentence were true. This is not the same as knowing whether a sentence is true, which is (usually) an empirical matter, but knowledge of truth conditions is a prerequisite for such verification to be possible. Meaning as truth conditions needs to be generalized somewhat for the case of imperatives or questions, but is a common ground among all contemporary theories, in one form or another, and has an extensive philosophical justification, e.g., [Dav69,Dav73].

A semantic description of a language is some finitely stated mechanism that allows us to say, for each sentence of the language, what its truth conditions are. Just as for grammatical description, a semantic theory will characterize complex and novel sentences on the basis of their constituents: their meanings, and the manner in which they are put together. The basic constituents will ultimately be the meanings of words and morphemes. The modes of combination of constituents are largely determined by the syntactic structure of the language. In general, to each syntactic rule combining some sequence of child constituents into a parent constituent, there will correspond some semantic operation combining the meanings of the children to produce the meaning of the parent.

Winston Churchill

May 13, 1940 to House of Commons at the beginning of World War II

I beg to move,

That this House welcomes the formation of a Government representing the united and inflexible resolve of the nation to prosecute the war with Germany to a victorious conclusion.

…………………………………………………………………………………………….

In this crisis I hope I may be pardoned if I do not address the House at any length today. I hope that any of my friends and colleagues, or former colleagues, who are affected by the political reconstruction, will make allowance, all allowance, for any lack of ceremony with which it has been necessary to act. I would say to the House, as I said to those who have joined this government: "I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears and sweat."

We have before us an ordeal of the most grievous kind. We have before us many, many long months of struggle and of suffering.

You ask, what is our policy? I can say: It is to wage war, by sea, land and air, with all our might and with all the strength that God can give us; to wage war against a monstrous tyranny, never surpassed in the dark, lamentable catalogue of human crime. That is our policy.

You ask, what is our aim? I can answer in one word: It is victory, victory at all costs, victory in spite of all terror, victory, however long and hard the road may be; for without victory, there is no survival.

Let that be realised; no survival for the British Empire, no survival for all that the British Empire has stood for, no survival for the urge and impulse of the ages, that mankind will move forward towards its goal.

But I take up my task with buoyancy and hope. I feel sure that our cause will not be suffered to fail among men. At this time I feel entitled to claim the aid of all, and I say, "come then, let us go forward together with our united strength."

THE GREAT GATSBY

F. Scott Fitzgerald

(The passage deals with the description of the major character of the novel and American society after World War I.)

He did extraordinarily well in the war. He was a captain before he went to the front, and following the Argonne bat ties he got his majority and the command of the divisional machine-guns. After the Armistice he tried frantically to get home, but some complication or misunderstanding sent him to Oxford instead. He was worried now - there was a quality of nervous despair in Daisy's letters. She didn't see why he couldn't come. She was feeling the pressure of the world outside, and she wanted to see him and feel his presence beside her and be reassured that she was doing the right thing after all.

For Daisy was young and her artificial world vas redolent of orchids and pleasant, cheerful snobbery and orchestras which set the rhythm of the year, summing up the sadness and suggestiveness of life in new tunes. All night the saxophones wailed the hopeless comment of the “Beale Street Blues” while a hundred pairs of golden and silver slippers shuffled the shining dust. At the gray tea hour there were always rooms that throbbed incessantly with this low, sweet fever, while fresh faces drifted here and there like rose petals blown by the sad horns around the floor.

Through this twilight universe Daisy began to move again with the season; suddenly she was again keeping half a dozen dates a day with half a dozen men, and drowsing asleep at dawn with the beads and chiffon of an evening dress tangled among dying orchids on the floor beside her bed. And all the time something within her was crying for a decision. She wanted her life shaped now, immediately- and the decision must be made by some force - of love, of money, of unquestionable practicality - that was close at hand.

That force took shape in the middle of spring with the arrival of Tom Buchanan. There was a wholesome bulkiness about his person and his position, and Daisy was flattered. Doubtless there was a certain struggle and a certain relief. The letter reached Gatsby while he was still at Oxford.