13) The category of voice of the verb.

The verbal category of voice shows the direction of the process as regards the participants of the situation reflected in the syntactic construction.2 sets of verbs:1.passivized 2.non-passivized (e.g. have, belong cost)It denotes relations between an action and a subject and an object.The category of voice is expressed by the binary-privative opposition of the passive and active forms of the verb; the active form of the verb is the unmarked, weak member of the opposition, and the passive is the strong member marked by the combination of the auxiliary verb to be (or the verbs to get, to become in colloquial speech) and participle II of the notional verb.The category of voice of the verb.

Passive constructions are used when the agent is unknown or irrelevant, e.g.: He was killed during the war; The cup has been broken.In the active syntactic construction the subject and the object both in the situation described and in the syntactic structure of the sentence coincide, cf.: His daughter broke the cup.In the passive construction the semantic emphasis is laid on the experience of the object, while in the active construction prominence is given to the actions of the doer; in many cases active and passive constructions are mutually transformative, cf.: His daughter broke the cup. - The cup was broken by his daughter.Besides the immediate “active” meaning as such, the active forms of verbs denote a wide range of various non-passive meanings, for example, processes which do not imply any objects at all, e.g.: The child cried; It rained;The passive is more widely used in English than in Russian: not only transitive verbs, but almost all objective complementive verbs can be passivized, e.g.: The doctor was sent for. There is a small group of verbs, most of them statal, which are not used in the passive in English: to be, to have, to belong, to cost, to resemble, to consist, and some other.Voice is a very specific verbal category.First, it does not reflect the actual properties of the process denoted, but the speaker’s appraisal of it; the speaker chooses which of the participants in the situation – the agent (the subject, the doer of the action) or the patient (the object, the receiver of the action, the experiencer) – should be presented as the subject of the syntactic construction.Second, though it is expressed through the morphological forms of the verb, voice is closely connected with the structural organization of the syntactic construction: the use of passive or active forms of the verb involves the use of the passive or active syntactic construction.The problem of “medial” voices reflexive the subject of the action is the object of the action at the same time, e.g.: He dressed quickly; This meaning can be rendered by the reflexive “-self” pronouns, e.g.: He dressed himself/-reciprocal the subject denotes a group of doers whose actions are directed towards each other:They quarreled with each other.-middle the subject is neither the doer of the action nor its immediate object, the action is as if of its own accord, e.g.: The door opened; The concert began.Types of complex sentences: The notions of declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory sentence appear to be applicable to some types of complex sentences as well.Classification:1. According to the functional principle we distinguish object, attributive, adverbial clauses, etc.2. According to the categorial principle subordinate clauses are divided into 3 categorial semantic groups: substantive-nominal, qualification-nominal and adverbial.e.g. That they were justified in this she could not but admit. – That fact she could not but admit.e.g. Ann had become aware of the fact that she was talking loudly. – Ann had become aware of that fact.e.g. I’ll deserve your confidence if you give me another chance. – I’ll deserve your confidence on condition that you give me another chance.The two classifications are mutually complementary:

- clauses of primary nominal positions (subject, predicative, object clauses);- clauses of secondary nominal positions (attributive clauses);- clauses of adverbial positions.3. According to the degree of self-dependence of clauses complex sentences are divided into monolythic and segregative sentence structures. Monolythic complex sentences are based on obligatory subordinative connections of clauses, whereas segregative complex sentences are based on optional subordinative connections.Monolythic complex sentences:1) merger complex sentences, i.e. sentences with subject and predicative subordinate clauses, where the subordinate clause is fused with the principal one.

E.g. The trouble is we are to change our plans.2) valency monolyth complexes, whose subordinate clauses are dependent on the obligatory right-hand valency of the verb in the principal clause. Here belong sentences with object clauses and valency-determined adverbial clauses.E.g. I think a man like that is a real artist. – I think -…

e.g. Put the book where it belongs. – Put the book - …3) correlation monolyth complexes, which are based on subordinate correlations. Complex sentences with restrictive subordinate clauses are included into this subtype.

E.g. The girl played the piano with such feeling as you had never experienced.4) arrangement monolyth complexes, whose obligatory connection between the principal and subordinate clauses is determined only by the linear order of clausal positions.E.g. If you refused her present, it would upset her.The connection between the clauses is obligatory. Rearrangement of clausal positions turns the connection between the clauses into optional. It would upset her if you refused her present. – It would upset her. The connection between the subordinate clauses can be parallel (homogeneous, heterogeneous) and consecutive (direct and oblique).