Translate text e into Russian.

Text E: Истоки метрологии

Для поддержания единства установленных мер еще в древние времена создавались эталонные (образцовые) меры. К ним относились бережно: в древности они хранились в храмах, церквях как наиболее надежных местах для хранения ценных предметов. В древней России контролем за правильностью содержания и применения мер занимались таможни, "кружечные дворы". В Москве действовали Померная изба и Большая таможня. Померная изба проводила периодическую ("как год минет") поверку мер и изымала неправильные ("воровские") меры.

В 1698 году Петр I написал в указе "О сборе в Московской Большой таможне пошлин": "за найденные непрямые, воровские весы лавки опечатать, товары отобрать и семьей сослать". Он же в Уставе воинских артикулов (1716 год) писал: "Наказание за обмер и обвес – возвратить добро втрое, взимать штраф, подвергнуть телесному наказанию".

В 1745 году публикуется Указ сенатский о рассылке из камер-коллегии во все города заклейменных мер для хлеба и о взыскании штрафа с того, у кого окажутся неуказанные меры.

Долгое время метрология была в основном описательной наукой о различных мерах и соотношениях между ними. Но в процессе развития общества роль измерений возрастала, и с конца прошлого века благодаря прогрессу физики метрология поднялась на качественно новый уровень. Большую роль в становлении метрологии в России сыграл Д.И. Менделеев, руководивший отечественной метрологией в период с 1892 по 1907 г. "Наука начинается... с тех пор, как начинают измерять", – в этом научном кредо великого ученого выражен, по существу, важнейший принцип развития науки, который не утратил актуальности и в современных условиях.

Metrology Forum: Just for Fun World Standards Day

From the pages of Open Systems Today - October 13, 1994:

"The International Standards Organization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) designated October 14 as World Standards Day to recognize those volunteers who have worked hard to define international standards.... The United States celebrated World Standards Day on October 11; Finland celebrated on October 13; and Italy celebrated on October 18."

No further comment about the global state of "standardization" is necessary!

Managers versus Metrologists

A group of managers were asked to measure the height of a flagpole. They fetched a ladder and tape measure and headed to the flagpole to perform their task. They weren't having much luck because they kept dropping the tape measure and falling off the ladder.

Observing what they were attempting to do, a metrologist approached them and offered to help. He pulled the flagpole out of the ground, laid it down flat, measured it from one end to the other, gave the measurements to one of the managers and walked away.

After the metrologist had gone, one of the managers turned to the others and said, "Well, isn't that just like a metrologist? We're looking for the height of the flagpole and he tells us the length."

Unit 3

You may find these words useful while working at Unit 3. Read and practice vocabulary list 3 paying attention to the international words.

Vocabulary List 3

1. aesthetics [iːs'θetɪks] – эстетика

2. acre ['eɪkə] – акр (= 4 047 м²); владение, поместье, земли

3. approximate [ə'prɔksɪmət] – примерный; приблизительно равняться

4. commensurable [kə'men(t)ʃ(ə)rəbl] – делимый без остатка, соизмеримый, пропорциональный

5. compulsion [kəm'pʌlʃ(ə)n] – принуждение, насилие

6. customary ['kʌstəmərɪ] – основанный на обычном праве, привычный

7. distaste [dɪs'teɪst] – питать отвращение, неприязнь

8. downsize ['daunsaɪz] – уменьшать габариты и массу, сокращать

9. gauge [geɪʤ] – мера, масштаб, размер, калибр, эталон, шаблон, ширина колеи

10. hectare ['hektɛə] – гектар (=10 000 м²)

11. inch [ɪnʧ] – дюйм (2,54 см); небольшое расстояние

12. nut [nʌt] – гайка, муфта

13. obsolete ['ɔbsəliːt] – вышедший из употребления, старомодный, исчезающий

14. ounce [aun(t)s] – унция (=28,35 грамма)

15. pint  [paɪnt] –пинта (пива, эля): в Англии =0,57л; В США = 0,47л

16. profiteering [ˌprɔfɪ'tɪərɪŋ] – спекуляция, нажива

17. retail ['riːteɪl] - розничный

18. scales [skeɪlz]- весы

19. specimen ['spesəmɪn] – образец, образчик, экземпляр

20. support [sə'pɔːt] – поддержка, опора

21. thread [θred] – резьба, нарезка

22. vehicle  ['vɪəkl] – транспортное средство

Pre-reading task: Think and answer

1) What are the advantages and disadvantages of using the metric system?

2) Is the metric system used worldwide?

3) Can you name the countries using alternative measuring systems?

4) Why do you think they still continue using their own systems in these countries?

Read text A and do the tasks following it.

Text A

1. The spread of metrication around the world in the last two centuries has been met with both support and opposition. All countries except Burma (Myanmar), Liberia, and the United States of America have officially adopted the metric system, although actual usage may be more complex. Only the United States continues to see significant popular opposition to metrication, the main objections being based in localism, tradition, cultural aesthetics, economic impact, or distaste for measures viewed as "foreign". Japan had significant popular opposition at one time for similar reasons. Popular opposition in the United Kingdom exists to a lesser degree and can be associated with anti-European Union sentiment. France, where the measures were largely invented, saw popular opposition during the early 19th century, though not for long. Thus, with the exception of the United States, metrication is now fully or substantially accepted in nearly all countries.

2. One argument used by opponents of the metric system is that traditional systems of measurement were developed organically from actual use. Early measures were human in scale. In parts of Malaysia, villagers asked the distance to the next village were likely to respond with three rice cookings; an approximation of the time it would take to travel there on foot. Everyone is assumed to know how long it takes to cook rice. Named units referring to seeming standards also were contextualized. The aune, a French ell used for measuring cloth, depended on the sort of cloth being measured, taking price and scarcity into account; an aune of silk was shorter than an aune of linen. At the time of the French revolution there were over 5000 different foot measures.

3. Traditional English units of measure reflect these ways of measuring, including their lack of standardisation. These units were not scientifically precise, but were easy to learn and use for making rough estimates of size. Traditional English expressions such as a stone's throw, within earshot, a cartload or a handful illustrate the thinking behind traditional measurements. These measures were often relational and commensurable: a request for a judgment of measure allowed for a variety of answers, depending on the context of the request.

4. The present UK imperial system is based on the Weights and Measures Act 1824, about 30 years after the founding of the metric system. The British Weights and Measures Society has argued that metrics led to a greater complexity for consumers because, unlike the ounce, the gram is too small for measurement in everyday life and that the introduction of the metric system can aid profiteering if manufacturers downsize packages.

I. Are these statements

a) true b) false c) there is no information in the text

1) The European Union is responsible for compulsory metrication.

2) In the US there is also government compulsion with weight and measures.

3) There are still a great number of countries that oppose metrification.

4) According to the British Weights and Measures Society some metric units are too small for measurement in everyday life.

5) A lot of traditional units are mentioned in colloquial English expressions.

II. Find the paragraphs (1-4) to which the following ideas correspond:

1. the current result of metric adoption

2. consumers’ problems with metrics

3. the usage of traditional units is based on their actual use

4. the imperial system dates back to the 19^th century

III. Choose the answer to the question: How were traditional measures developed?

a) artificially

b) on the basis of rationality and commensurability

c) by holding a contest

d) by means of a science

IV. What is the main idea of the text? Choose from the following as the title of the text:

a) Metrication Opposition

b) Different Values in Different Places

c) Displacement of Traditional Units

d) Establishing Uniformity of Weights and Measures

Read text B to answer the questions:

1) Where are both systems’ units used in the UK?

2) Why do you think the country is mot going to give up it imperial system?

3) Think of your own arguments for and against applying:

Metric System	Alternative System (eg. UK Imperial, US customary, etc.)	Both
1.	1.	1.
2.	2.	2.

Text B: Current Use of Imperial Units in the UK

British law now defines each imperial unit in terms of the metric equivalent. The metric system is in official use within the United Kingdom for some applications; however, use of Imperial unit is widespread in many cases.

The Units of Measurement Regulations 1995 require that all measuring devices used in trade or retail be capable of measuring and displaying metric quantities. This has now been proven in court against the so-called "Metric Martyrs", a small group of market traders who insisted on trading in imperial units only. Contrary to the impression given by some press reports, these regulations do not currently place any obstacle in the way of using imperial units alongside metric units. Almost all traders in the UK will accept requests from customers specified in imperial units, and scales which display in both unit systems are commonplace in the retail trade. Metric price signs may be accompanied by imperial price signs (known as supplementary indicators) provided that the imperial signs are no larger and no more prominent than the official metric ones.

The United Kingdom completed its legal partial transition to the metric system (sometimes referred to as "SI") in 1995, with many imperial units still legally mandated for some application; draught beer must be sold in pints, road-sign distances must be in yards and miles, length and width (but not weight) restrictions must be in feet and inches on road signs (although an equivalent in metres may be shown as well), and road speed limits must be in miles per hour, therefore instruments in vehicles sold in the UK must be capable of displaying miles per hour. Foreign vehicles, such as all post-2005 Irish vehicles, may legally have instruments displayed only in kilometres per hour. Even though the troy pound was outlawed in the UK in the Weights and Measures Act of 1878, the troy ounce still may be used for the weight of precious stones and metals. The railways are also a big user of imperial units, with distances officially measured in miles and yards or miles and chains, and also feet and inches, and speeds are in miles per hour, although many modern metro and tram systems are entirely metric, and London Underground uses both metric (for distances) and imperial (for speeds).

The use of SI units is required by law for the retail sale of some foods and other commodities, whilst imperial units are required for others. Many British people still use imperial units in everyday life for distance (yards, feet and inches), weight (especially stones and pounds) and volume (gallons & pints). Milk is available in both litre and pint based containers. Most people still measure their weight in stone and pounds, and height in feet and inches (but these must be converted to metric if recorded officially, for example in medical records). Petrol is often quoted as being so much per gallon, despite having been sold exclusively in litres for two decades. Likewise, fuel consumption for cars is still almost always in miles per gallon, though official figures always include litres per 100 km equivalents. Fahrenheit equivalents are occasionally given after Celsius in weather forecasts, though this is becoming rare. Threads on non-metric nuts and bolts etc., are sometimes referred to as Imperial, especially in the UK. Areas of land associated with farming or forestry are bought and sold measured in acres, but for official government areas the unit is always hectares.

Read text C and fill the gaps with the words in brackets.

(yard, market, increase, counterparts, precision, obsolete, adopting, units, quart)

Text C: Price inflation

The British Weights and Measures Association argues that (1)… metric measures in shops, especially in supermarkets, gives an opportunity for traders to (2) … prices covertly. They give numerous examples of packaged groceries to back up this contention.

However, common metric (3)… are larger than their nearest US/imperial (4)… : half a kilogram is more than a pound (0.5 kg = 1.102 lb), one metre is more than a (5)… (1 m = 1.094 yd), one litre is a little more than a US (6)… (1 L = 1.0567 qt) (though a little less than an imperial quart). When Pepsi became the first in the United States to sell soft drinks in two-litre bottles instead of two-quart (US)(1.89 L) bottles, it was a success, and two-litre bottles are now well-established in the American soda (7)… , though fluid ounces remain the usual unit of measure for cans.

The move to smaller units (e.g. [milliliter] vs [fluid ounce], [gram] vs [ounce]) allows manufacturers to move sizes of packaging up and down with more (8)…. For example, a 2 oz packet of chips may be moved to 50 grams, then 45 grams. Likewise, strange packaging sizes may arise, such as 690 grams (about 24 oz) or 1200 grams (about 42 oz), usually resulting from conversion and rounding of (9)… units.

Read text D, translate it into Russian. Provide some interesting and fascinating facts about metrology history for the presentation.