15. The Style of Official Documents

1) Language of business letters; 2) Language of legal documents; 3) Language of diplomacy; 4) Language of military documents; The aim: 1. to reach agreement between two contracting parties; 2. to state the conditions binding two parties in an understanding. Each of substyles of official documents makes use of special terms. Legal documents: military documents, diplomatic documents. The documents use set expressions inherited from early Victorian period. This vocabulary is conservative. Legal documents contain a large proportion of formal and archaic words used in their dictionary meaning. In diplomatic and legal documents many words have Latin and French origin. There are a lot of abbreviations and conventional symbols. The most noticeable feature of grammar is the compositional pattern. Every document has its own stereotyped form. The form itself is informative and tells you with what kind of letter we deal with. Business letters contain: heading, addressing, salutation, the opening, the body, the closing, complimentary clause, the signature. Syntactical features of business letters are - the predominance of extended simple and complex sentences, wide use of participial constructions, homogeneous members. Morphological peculiarities are passive constructions, they make the letters impersonal. There is a tendency to avoid pronoun reference. Its typical feature is to frame equally important factors and to divide them by members in order to avoid ambiguity of the wrong interpretation.

16. Words of literary stylistic layer (Standard English). They are in their turn divided into literary-colloquial and literary-bookish.

Literary-colloquial are words denoting everyday concepts, they constitute the core of the word-stock (see, come, home, right).

Literary-bookish include:

a) Terms, subdivided into: 1) Popular terms of "some special spheres of human knowledge known to the "public at large (typhoid, pneumonia); 2) Terms used exclusively within a profession (phoneme, micro-linguistics);

b) Poeticisms, words used exclusively in poetry and the like. Many of these words are archaic or obsolete, such as whilom (sometimes), aught (anything), tie (no, not), haply (may be); for ay (for ever), I wee (I suppose), he kens (he knows); childe (a nobleman's son);

c) Fоrеign words and barbarisms (ban mot, neglige, au revoir; ad'absurdum, Bundeswehr). A distinction is made between the two. Barbarisms are considered to be part of the vocabulary of the given language constituting its peripheral layer. They are usually registered in dictionaries (a propos, vis-a-vis, etc.) while foreign words are, as a rule, not found in dictionaries. In literature barbarisms are generally used to lend local colour: pied-a-terre (a small flat), croissants (breakfast, bread), etc. But it would also be true to say that no straight line of demarcation can be drawn between the two groups.

17. Words of non-literary stylistic layer (Sub-standard English). This layer also includes several subgroups:

a) Colloquialisms. Words that occupy an intermediate position between literary and non-literary stylistic layers and are used in conversational type of everyday speech, (awfully sorry, a pretty little thing, etc.)

b) Slangisms. Words that have originated in everyday speech and exist on the periphery of the lexical system of the given language: go crackers (go mad); guru (god); belt up (keep silence); big-head (a boaster);

c) Professionalisms. Words characteristic of the conversational variant of professional speech. Contrary to terms, professionalisms are the result of metonymic or metaphoric transference of some everyday words: bull (one who buys shares at the stock-exchange); bear (one who sells shares); sparks (a radio-operator); tin-hat (helmet), etc.

d) Vulgarisms. Rude words or expressions used mostly in the speech of the uncultured and the uneducated, e. g. missus (wife), son of a bitch (a bad person), etc.

The border-line between colloquialisms, slangisms and vulgarisms is often hard to draw for there are hardly any | linguistic criteria of discrimination. This explains why ,; one finds so many discrepancies in how these stylistic subgroups are labelled in various dictionaries.

Two more subgroups of the non-literary stylistic layer should be mentioned.

e) Jargonizes (cantisms). Words used within certain social and professional groups.

f). Regional dialectisms. Words and expressions used by peasants and others in certain regions of the country: baccy (tobacco), unbeknown (unknown), winder (window), etc.

18. 1. Simile – a figure of speech, which draws comparison between two different objects in one or more aspects (an imaginative comparison). We should distinguish between two words: ‘comparison’ and ‘simile’, both are translated ‘сравнение’. Comparison means juxtaposition of two objects belonging to one class of things for the purpose of establishing the degree of their likeness or difference. To use a simile is to characterize one object by bringing it into contact with another object belonging to an entirely different class of things.

Possible are structural variations of simile:

1. The sign of comparison of two objects is directly mentioned. E.g. ‘He is as beautiful as a weathercock’. (O.W.)

2.The character of resemblance is only meant.

E.g. My heart is like a singing bird.

Look at the moon. How strange the moon seems: She is like a woman, rising from a tomb. She is like a dead woman. (O.W.)

3. The image suggested by the simile is not quite clear and the author gives an explanation.

E.g. ‘He had a face like a choir-boy’s – but a choir-boy suddenly overwhelmed by middle age; chubby, pretty doll-like, but withered’.

The simile usually serves as means to a clearer meaning. 2. Metaphor.is the transfer of the name of the object to another one on the basis of similarity, likeness, affinity of two objects.Metaphor can be embodied in all meaningful parts of speech: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs. E.g. n. The machine sitting at the desk was no longer a man; it was a busy New York broker. (O.H.)

v. In the slanting beams that streamed through the open window, the dust danced and was golden. (O. W.) adv. The leaves fell sorrowfully. adj. The pillow remained sleepless. Metaphors expressed by adverbs and adjectives are called metaphoric epithets Sometimes a metaphor is not confined in one image. The writer finds it necessary to prolong the image. He does so by adding a number of other images, but all these additional images are linked with the main, central image. Such metaphors are called sustained or prolonged metaphors.

e.g. … any dispassionate spectator would have been induced to wonder that the indignant fire which flashed from his eyes, did not melt the glasses of his spectacles – so majestic was his wrath. (Dickens).

The metaphors ‘flashed’ and ‘melt’ are connected with the main image, expressed by the word ‘fire’. This prolonged image helps the author to achieve exaggeration

3. Epithet. Epithet is a stylistic device showing the purely individual emotional attitude of the writer or the speaker towards the object mentioned. e.g. Shining serenely as some immeasurable mirror beneath the smiling face of the heaven, the solitary ocean lay in unrippled silence. (Fr. Bullen). Epithets can be classified from the point of view of their compositional structure. They may be divided into simple, compound, and phrase epithets. Simple epithets are ordinary adjectives or adverbs (see ex. above). Compound epithets are built like compound adjectives, e.g. heart-burning sight, cloud-shapen giant. The tendency to cram into one language unit as much information as possible has led to new compositional models for epithets which are called phrase epithets.

e.g. ‘So think first of her, but not in the ‘I love you so that nothing will induce me to marry you’ fashion. (Galsworhty). e.g

4. Personification. Personification is another variety of metaphor.

Personification is attributing human properties to lifeless objects – mostly to abstract notions, such as thoughts, actions, intentions, emotions, seasons of the year, etc.

The stylistic purposes of personification are varied. In poetry and fiction the purpose of personification is to help to visualize the description, to impart dynamic force to it or to reproduce the particular mood of the viewer. In his ballad ‘John Barleycorn’ R. Burns personifies barleycorn by ascribing such notions as die, his head, was dead, bending joints and drooping head. Personification is often effected by direct address.

19. Methonomy –a device in which the name of a thing is replaced by the name of an associated thing.Unlike methaphor where the interaction b/w the m-gs of diff.words is based on resemblance,meth-my reflects the actually existing relations.Night was a friend(m-r)No eye to see no ear to listen(m-y)Those words have aquired contextual, logical m-gs that of people. The interaction b/w cont/log m-g is based on close relations objectively existing b/w the part of the body itself.

Synechdoche is some kind of generalization or specification that uses a part, a member or a characteristic of what is meant. The following possibilities are common:

Part used instead of the whole Ex:Turning our long boat round […] on the last morning required all hands on deck … (hands = people) 

Whole used instead of a part Ex:Troops halt the drivers (troops = soldiers) 

Specific term used instead of a general one: Ex:Kashmir is their Maui, Aspen, and Palm Springs all rolled into one. siehe Anmerkung)

Synecdoche is when one uses a part to represent the whole.

Example:lend me your ears (give me your attention).

20.Mixed Group. To this group belong figures having double nature. Metaphoric as well as metonymic transfer is in their basis. They are Allegory and antonomasia. 1.Allegory. Allegory is an expression of abstract ideas through concrete pictures. The purpose of allegory as a stylistic device is to intensify the influence of logical contents of speech by adding to it an element of emotional character.

Proverbs may serve as simplest examples of allegory. Thus in the proverb All is not gold that glitters the question is not about the gold and its glitter, but about the fact that not always outer beauty speaks of inner value. (=Appearances are deceptive).

The above mentioned proverb is metaphoric allegory as it is based on similarity of abstract and generalized notions to concrete things and phenomena.

In metonymic allegory the name of some object which is a traditional material sign of some idea, i.e. its symbol, is used instead of its direct expression.

Certain genres of literature are allegorical throughout: thus, fairy stories and, especially, fables always imply something different, something more important for human problems than what they seem to denote literarily.As an example we can lead that in tales animals, subjects have unreal human power.

2.Antonomasia. Antonomasia. Metaphorical antonomasia is the use of the name of a

historical, literary, mythological or biblical personage applied to a person

whose characteristic features resemble those of the well-known original.

Thus, a traitor may be referred to as Brutus, a ladies’ man deserves the

name of Don Juan. English nature. Her are some successful translations the names mentioned: Мистер Гад, Мистер Доверч, Мистер Клеветаун Мистер Легкомыслинг, Мисс Томней. But to characterize a person through his name is not the only function of antonomasia. Very often it helps to give concrete expression for abstract notion: Lady Teazle: ‘Oh! I am quite undone! Now, Mr. Logic – Oh! What will become of me?....(Sheridan)

21. Synonyms are different words with almost identical or similar meanings. Words that are synonyms are said to be synonymous, and the state of being a synonym is called synonymy. The word comes from Ancient Greek syn (σύν) ("with") and onoma (ὄνομα) ("name"). The words car and automobile are synonyms. Similarly, if we talk about a long time or an extended time, long and extended become synonyms. In the figurative sense, two words are often said to be synonymous if they have the same connotation: "a widespread impression that... Hollywood was synonymous with immorality" (Doris Kearns Goodwin) Synonyms can be any part of speech (such as [noun]]s, verbs, adjectives, adverbs or prepositions), as long as both members of the pair are the same part of speech. Here are more examples of English synonyms:

Verb "buy" and "purchase" ; Adjective "sick" and "ill" ; Adverb "quickly" and "speedily" ; Preposition "on" and "upon".

Periphrasis is the renaming of an object that brings out some particular feature of the object. The essence of the device is that it is decipherabl поддающийся чтению e only in the context. If a periphrasis is understandable outside the context, it is not a stylistic device but merely a synonymous expression. Such easily decipherable periphrases are also called traditional: the cap and gown (student body); the fair/better sex (women); my better half (my wifethe man in the street (an ordinary person).

Periphrasis may be logical and figurative. Logical periphrases are based on logical notions: a certain feature of an object is taken to denote the whole object, or a wider notion is substituted for the concrete notion. e.g. Mr. Snodgrass bore under his arm the instrument of the destruction. (Dickens) Figurative periphrasis may be based on metaphor (metaphoric periphrasis) or on metonymy (metonymic periphrasis). e.g. ‘Back foolish tears, back to your native spring’. (eyes) (Shakespeare) It is a metaphoric periphrasis. e.g. A tremendous whack came down on Tom’s shoulder and its duplicate on Joe’s; and for the space of two minutes the dust continued to fly from the two jackets and the whole school to enjoy it. (M. Twain) It is a metonymic periphrasis and means to fight.

Euphemisms. There is a variety of periphrasis which is called euphemistic. Euphemisms, as is known, is a word or a phrase used to replace an unpleasant word or a phrase by a conventionally more acceptable one, for example: the word to die has bred the following euphemisms, : to pass away to expire, to be no more, to depart and more facetious ones: to kick the bucket,, to go west.

22.Antithesis is a confrontation противостояние of two notions which underlines the radical difference between them.

Two words or expressions of the opposite meanings may be used to characterize the same object. E. g.: «It was the best of times, it was the worst of times.Antithesis may be used to depict two objects with opposite characteristics. E.g.: «His fees were high; his lessons were light...» (O’Henry).

Two objects may be opposed as incompatible несовместимый by themselves and each of them obtain a characteristic opposite to that of the other.

E.g.: «For the old struggle – mere stagnation, and in place of danger and death, the dull monotony of security and the horror of an unending decay!» (Leacock). Oxymoron is a combination of two words (mostly an adjective and a noun or an adverb with an adjective) in which the meaning of the two words, being opposite in sense: ‘His honour rooted in dishonour stood And faith unfaithful kept him falsely true.’

Irony. (Greek eironeia – ‘mockery concealed’) Irony is a transfer based upon the opposition of the two notions: the notion named and the notion meant. Here we observe the greatest qualitative shift, if compared with metonymy (transfer by contiguity) and metaphor (transfer by similarity). Irony is used with the aim of critical evaluation of the thing spoken about. E. g.: «What a noble illustrations of the tender laws of this favoured country! – they let the paupers go to sleep!» (Dickens). In oral speech irony is made prominent by emphatic intonation, mimic and gesticulation. In writing, the most typical signs are inverted commas

or italics It is the use of words, word-combinations and sentences in the meanings opposite to those directly expressed by them (i.e. opposite to their logical meaning) for purpose of ridicule. Thus in the sentence: ‘It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one’s pocket.’ The word “delightful’ acquires a meaning quite the opposite to its primary dictionary meaning, that is ‘unpleasant’, ‘not delightful’. .

Paradox – Greek paradoxos, contrary to received opinion or expectation. A statement which, though it seems to be self-contradictory, contains a basis of truth. A statement conflicting with received opinion or belief. A paradox often provokes the reader to consider the particular point afresh, as when Shakespeare says, “Cowards die many times before their deaths”

«Wine costs money, blood costs nothing»

23.Climax presents a structure in which every consecutive sentence последующее предложение or phrase is emotionally stronger or logically more important than the preceding one.e.g. ‘For that instant there was no one else in the room, in the house, in the world, besides themselves…’ (Wilson) Such an organization of the utterance creates a gradual intensification of its significance своего значения, both logical and emotive, and absorbs the reader’s attention more completely: ‘

A peculiar variety is observed in those cases when a negative structure undergoes intensification: ‘No tree, no shrub, no blade of grass … that was not owned’. (Galsworthy). ‘Not a syllable – not a whisper’. (Dickens)

Anticlimax. A real anticlimax is a sudden deception обман of the recipient: it consists in adding one weaker element to one or several stronger ones, mentioned before. The recipient is disappointed in his expectations: he predicted a stronger element to follow; instead, some insignificant idea follows the significant one (ones). This usually brings forth a humorous effect.

The majority of famous O. Wilde’s and B. Shaw’s paradoxes are based on anticlimax: ‘Women have a wonderful instinct about things. They can discover everything except the obvious.’ (O,W.)

Hyperbole is a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration, the aim of which is to intensify активизация one of the features of the object in question to such a degree as will show its utter absurdity нелепость: ‘God, I cried buckets ведра. I saw it ten times.’

Like many stylistic devises hyperbole may lose its quality as a stylistic device through frequent repetition and become a unit of the language- as-a-system, (language expressive means): a thousand pardons, scared to death etc.

Pun (paronomasia, a play on words) – (It. Puntiglio “fine point”). Pun — the use of a word in such a manner as to bring out different meanings or applications, or the use of words alike or nearly alike in sound but different in meaning, often with humorous intent. It can be also called a play of words. Puns are often used in riddles and joke. The humorous or ludicrous use of a word in more than one sense; a play on words. E.g. “When I am dead, I hope it may be said: “His sins were red but his books were read”. Here the pun is based on two homophones, read and red. (ELT)

24. Clichés - an expression that has become hackneyed and trite (избитый). Men of letters use the stock of expressive phrases contained in the language naturally and easily and well-known phrases never produce the impression of being cliches. A cliché has lost originality, ingenuity изобретательность and impact by long over useвышел из употребления. F.e. rose a dreams of youth. The patrol of little feet. Rising expectations. Growing awareness. it's got to get worse before it gets better. To think unthinkable thoughts. And it is there for necessary to avoid anything that may be called by that name.

Proverbs and sayings are facts of language. They are collected in dictionaries and there are special dictionaries of them. The most characteristic feature of a proverb or a saying lies not in its formal linguistic expression, but in the content-form of the utterance. A proverb or a saying is a peculiar mode of utterance which is mainly characterized by its brevity. The utterance itself presents a pattern which can be successfully used for other utterances. The peculiarity of the use of a proverb lies in the fact that the actual wording becomes a pattern which needs no new wording to suggest extensions of meaning which are contextual. A proverb presupposes a simultaneous application of 2 meanings: the face-value of primary meaning and an extended meaning drawn from the context. . Proverbs are brief statements showing the accumulated life experience of the community and serving as conventional practical symbols for abstract ideas. The main feature distinguishing proverbs and sayings from ordinary utterances remains their semantic aspect. Their literal meaning is suppressed by their transferred meaning. They, if used properly, will never lose their freshness and vigour.

A quotation or quote is the repetition of one expression as part of another one, particularly when the quoted expression is well-known or explicitly attributed by citation to its original source, and it is indicated by (punctuated with) quotation marks.

A quotation can also refer to the repeated use of units of any other form of expression, especially parts of artistic works: elements of a painting, scenes from a movie or sections from a musical composition.

25. Phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices. The stylistic approach to the utterance is not confined to its structure and its sense. There's another thing to be taken into account - the way a word, a phrase or a sentence sounds.

Onomatopoeia. It is a combination of speech sounds which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature (wind, sea, thunder etc.); by things (machine-tools); by people (sighing, laughter, patter of feet etc.); by animals (barking, purring etc.). Combinations of speech sounds of this type will inevitably be associated with whatever produces this sounds. Direct onomatopoeia is contained in words that imitate natural sounds: ding-dong, buzz, bang, mew, ping-pong, roar. They have different degrees of imitative quality. Some of them immediately bring to mind whatever it is. Some require special imagination. Indirect onomatopoeia is a combination of sounds the aim of which is to make the sound of the utterance an echo of its sense. And the silken, sad, uncertain, rustling of each purple curtain. “and the silken said uncertain rustling of each purple curtain” Edgar Po. The repetition of s actually produce the sound of the rustling of the curtain. Indirect o. is sometimes used by repeating words which are not onomatopoeic. “silver bells how they tinkle-tinkle-tinkle” Po.

Alliteration is a phonetic stylistic device which aims at imparting (придавать) a melodic effect to the utterance. The essence of this device lies in the repetition of similar sounds, in particular consonant sounds, in close succession, particularly at the beginning of successive words. e.g. Doubting, dreaming dreams, no mortals ever dared to dream before (Byron). The repetition of the initial sounds in the line integrates the utterance into a compositional unit (единое целое). It's frequently used not only in verse, but in emotive prose, headlines, in the titles of books, in proverbs and sayings: blind as a bat, tit for tat (зуб за зуб), between and betwixt, "Sense and Sensibility" (J.Austene), "Pride and Prejudice".

Rhyme is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combinations of words. Rhyming words are

generally placed at a regular distance from each other. In verse they are usually placed at the end of the

corresponding lines. a) Full rhymes. The identity of the vowel sound and following consonant sounds in a stressed syllable: knight-right. b) Incomplete rhymes. vowel rhymes mean that the vowels of the syllables in the corresponding verbs are identical. The consonants may be different: flesh –fresh-press. consonant rhymes mean that the consonants are identical and the vowels are different: tail - tool

Rhythm. It's periodicity. Rhythmical periodicity in verse стихах requires intervals of about 3 quarters of a

second between successive последовательными peaks of periods. The concept of rhythm should be distinguished from that of

meter. Meter is determined by the character and number of syllables it consists of. It's characterized by

strict regularity, consistency and unchangeability. Deviations Отклонения from the given meter are called

modifications of the rhythmical pattern. Rhythm in verse as a stylistic device is a combination of the

ideal metrical scheme and the variations which are governed by the standard. Functions: rhythm intensifies

emotions. (in poetry) a) the arrangement of words into a more or less regular sequence of stressed and unstressed or long and short syllables b) any specific such arrangement; metre

26.Repetition - is an expressive means of language used when the speaker is under stress of a strong emotion. It shows the state of mind of the speaker. as a stylistic device is a direct successor of repetition as an expressive language means, which serves to emphasize certain statements of the speaker, and so possesses considerable emotive force. Repetition is classified according, to compositional patterns:

l. Anaphora - the repeated word or phrase which comes at the beginning of two or more sentences. 2. Epiphora - repeated word is placed at the end of the sentences. 3.Framing - repetition is arranged in the form of a frame. . 4.Chain repetition. The whole phrase is repeated, forming a chain, (function of repetition is to intensify the utterance) 5. anadiplosis or catch repetition – the repetition of the same unit (word or phrase) at the end of the preceding and at the beginning of the sentence (…a, a …); The combination of several catch repetitions produces a chain repetition. Repetition emphasizes the most important part of the utterance, rendering the emotions of the speaker or showing his emotive attitude towards the object. described. prolepsis- the repettion of the noun subject in the form of personal pronoun.The purpose is to emphasize the subject. polysyndeton

 repetition of conjunctions in close succession (as in we have ships and men and money) Types of lexical repetitions: 1)pleonasm - the use of more words in the sentence then necessary to express the meaning, examples areblack darkness, or burning fire. 2) Tautology (from Greek tauto, "the same" and logos, "word/idea") is an unnecessary or unessential (and sometimes unintentional) repetition of meaning, using different and dissimilar words that effectively say the same thing (often originally from different languages).. Tautology is a repetition of the same idea in different words: A huge great big man. Say it over again once more. (Say it over. Say it again. Say it once more.) The crucial difference is that "Repeat it again" is a pleonasm, because again is inherent to "repeat". Repeat and again do not simply mean the same thing, which means that this is not a tautological repetition of the same thing in a different word

27.Stylistic Inversion - word order is a crucial syntactical problem in many languages. Stylistic inversion aims at attaching(добавление) logical stress or additional emotional colouring to the surface of the utterance. The violation(Нарушение)  of the traditional word order of the sentence (subject-predicate-object-adverbial modifiers) which does not change the meaning of the sentence only giving it an additional emotional coloring is called stylistic inversion. Stylistic inversion is used to single out some parts of the sentence and sometimes to rise the emotional tension. Parallel Construction - The necessary conditions in parallel construction is identical or similar syntactical structures in 2 or more sentences or parts of a sentence in close succession. e.g. There were real silver spoons to stir the tea with and real china cups to drink it out of, and plates of the same to hold the cakes and toast in.

Parallel constructions are often backed up by repetition of words and conjunctions and prepositions. It is

called Polysyndeton.

Chiasmus. It is a reversed parallel construction. It is based on the repetition of a syntactical pattern, but it has a cross order of words and phrases. It brings in some new shade of meaning or additional emphasis.

e.g. Down dropped the breeze, The sails dropped down. She was a good sport about all this, but so was he. In chiasmus the central part of the sentence – the predicate (сказуемое) remains the hinge (петля) around which occur syntactical changes – the subject of the first sentence becomes the object of the second and vice versa. The coach was waiting, the horse were fresh, the roads were good, and the driver was willing.

Detachment. One of the secondary parts of the sentence is detachedоторваны from the word it refers to and is made to seem independent of this word. Such parts are called detached and marked off by brackets, dashes or commas or even by full stops or exclamation marks: "I have to beg you for money! Daily!"

E.g. ‘How could John, with his heart of gold. Leave his family?’ Any secondary part may be detached.. Subordination and coordination. Clauses and independent sentences are combined by way of subordination or coordination. Besides they may be combined asyndetically. The same semantic relations between two neighbouring utterances may be expressed in to different ways: When the clock struck twelve, he came – subordination The clock struck twelve, and he came – coordination The clock struck twelve, he came – asyndetic connection The use of complex sentences, especially with complicated phrasal conjunctions, such as in view of the fact that or with regard to… is a sign of formal written type of speech. Suspense – holding the reader in tense anticipation ожидании is often realized through the separation of predicate from subject or predicative by the deliberate introduction between them of a phrase, clause or sentence (frequently parenthetic). Suspense is a deliberate намеренное slowing down of the thought, postponing its completion отложив завершение to the very end of the utterance. E.g. All this Mrs. Snagsby, as an injured woman and the friend of Mrs. Chadband, and the follower of Mr. Chadband and the mourner of the late Mr. Talkingh

orn, is here to certify. (Dickens) Suspense always requires long stretches of speech. The main purpose of the device is to prepare the reader for the only logical conclusion.

28. To the second group of syntactical SD of peculiar linkage according to Galperin belong asyndeton, polysyndeton and gap - sentence - link.

Asyndeton is a deliberate avoidance of conjunctions in constructions in which they would normally used. He couldn't go abroad alone, the sea upset his liver, he hated hotels.

The connection of sentences, phrases or words without any conjunctions is called asyndentic. Asyndeton helps the author to make each phrase or word sound independent and significant, creates an effect that the enumeration is not completed, creates a certain rhythmical arrangement, usually making the narrative measured and energetic. She watched them go; she said nothing; it was not to begin then.

Polysyndeton - is an identical repetition of conjunctions: used to emphasize simultaneousness of described actions, to disclose the author’s subjective attitude towards the characters, to create the rhythmical effect. The heaviest rain, and snow, and hail, and sleet, could boast of the advantage over him in only one respect.

Polysyndeton is the connection of sentences, phrases or words based on the repetition of conjunctions or prepositions. The repetition of the conjunction “and” before each word or phrase stresses these enumerated words or phrases.

Polysyndeton is sometimes used to retard the action and to create the stylistic effect of suspense and is one of the means used to create a certain rhythmical effect. He put on his coat and found his mug and plate and knife and went outside

.

29.Ellipsis (of Greek origin ‘ellipsis’ – недостаток, нехватка)

The deliberate omission of one or more principal words (usually the subject, the predicate). The missing parts are either present in the syntactical environment of the sentence (context) or they are implied by the situation.

For example, ‘The ride did Ma good. Rested her.’ (D. Carter) The second sentence is elliptical, as the subject of the sentence is missing.

Aposiopesis ( ἀποσιώπησις, "becoming silent") is a figure of speech wherein a sentence is suddenly broken off and left unfinished, the ending to be supplied by the imagination, giving an impression of unwillingness(нежелание) or inability to continue. An example would be the threat "Get out, or else—!" This device often portrays its users as overcome with passion (fear, anger, excitement) or modesty.

Nominative sentences/One-member sentences. The communicative function of a nominative sentence is a mere statement of the existence констотация существования of an object, a phenomenon: ‘London. Fog everywhere. Implacable November weather.’

Though syntactically different from elliptical sentences, nominative sentences (which comprise only one principal part expressed by a noun or a noun equivalent) resemble the former because of their brevity краткость. Nominative sentences are especially (important) suitable for preliminary descriptions предварительное описание introducing the reader to the situation. They are often used to present the background of the action as in the example:

‘Men, palms, red plush seats, white marble tables, waiters in aprons. Miss Moss walked through them all.’ (Mansfield)

One-member sentences may be used to heighten the emotional tension of the narrative or to single out the character or the author’s attitude towards what is happening.

Zeugma –a simultaneous realization of 2 m-gs of 1 polysem. word within the same context. The boys took their places and their books . Jane wasn’t narrow woman in mind and body. Here we feel the blending(смешвание) of 2/more semantically incompatible(несовместимы) w-groups having an identical lexical item make a single construction in which this item is used only once.The resulting effect-strongly humorous/ ironical.The same effect is achieved when a word upon which this trope is based is repeated

30. Represented speech. There are three ways of reproducing actual speech: 1. repetition of the exact utterance as it was spoken (direct speech). Actually, direct speech is a quotation. It is sometimes used in the publicistic style of language as a quotation. 2. conversion of the exact utterance into the relates mode of expression (indirect speech). 3. representation of the actual utterance by a second person, usually the author, as if it had been spoken, whereas it has not really been spoken but is only represented in the author's words (represented speech) Varieties of represented speech: 1.uttered represented speech - representation of the actual utterance through the author's Language. Uttered represented speech is the representation of author’s utterance through of author’s speech. 2.unuttered or inner represented speech - representation of the thoughts and feelings of the character. The thoughts and feelings going on in one's miad and reflecting some previous experience are called inner speech.

Inner speech is a psychological phenomenon. But when it is wrought into full utterance, it ceases to be inner speech, acquires a communicative function and becomes a phenomenon of language

31. Graphical experessive means, kinds of graphons.

In modern advertising, mass media & creative prose sound is foregrounded through the change of its accepted graphical representation. The intentional violation Умышленное нарушение of the graphical shape of word or word comb-n used to reflect its authentic pronunciation is called a graphon. Introduced into E. novels & journalisms in the 18 century graphon proved to be an extremely effective means of supplying info about speaker’s origin, social & educ. Background, physical & emot. condition, etc. (sellybrated, illygitmet). Graphons are also good at conveying atmosphere of authentic life communication. We have such clichés as in conversation as gotta, wonna, gimme, lemme, wille, nowaru.It becomes popular with advertisers. E.g.: Pik-wik(pick quick). There also exist dif. Forms of foregrounding: 1)capitalization, 2)italics, 3)spacing of graphemes: - hyphenation(ч/з дефис, с пробела); multiplication(1 &the same letter written several times). A special trend- graphical imagism: e.g. the whole poem is written in form of a bird.

32. Morphological stylistics deals with morphological expressive means and stylistic devices. Words of all parts of speech have a great stylistic potential. Being placed in an unusual syntagmatic environment which changes their canonized grammatical characteristics and combinability, they acquire stylistic significance. The central notion of morphological stylistics is the notion of transposition. Transposition is a divergence between the traditional usage of a neutral word and its situational (stylistic) usage. Words of every part of speech are united by their semantic and grammatical properties. General lexico-grammatical meaning of nouns is substantivity, i. e. the ability to denote objects or abstract notions. Due to the diverse nature of substantivity, nouns are divided into proper, common, concrete, abstract, material and collective. Cases of transposition emerge, in particular, when concrete nouns are used according to the rules of proper nouns usage, or vice versa. It results in creation of stylistic devises named antonomasia or personification. Besides general lexico-grammatical meaning, nouns possess grammatical meanings of the category of number and the category of case. Stylistic potential of nouns is significantly reinforced by transpositions in the usage of articles as noun-determiners. Such transpositions occur against generally accepted normative postulates which run: articles are not used with names of persons and animals, some classes of geographical names, abstract nouns and names of material. Uncommon usage of articles aims at importing specific shades of meaning into speech. General lexico-grammatical meaning of adjectives is that of qualitativeness. Qualitative adjectives are always estimative, that is why they are used as epithets (picturesque' view. idiotic shoe-laces, crazy bicycle, tremen-dous achievements) and can form degrees of comparison. Expressive devices may be created by transposition of pronouns. When objective forms of personal pronouns are used predicatively instead of nominative forms, sentences obtain colloquial marking (It is him: It is her: It is me: It is them: It is us,). Transposition of verbs is even more varied than that of nouns. It is explained by a greater number of grammatical categories the meanings of which may be transposed. Most expressive are tense forms, mood forms and voice forms. Deviation from the general (most frequently realized) meaning makes verbs stylistically coloured. Such transposition brightens the narration, raises its emotional tension, expresses intrigue, makes the continuity of events visual and graphic. Transposition is not the only way to make verbs expressive. A good many verbal forms are expressive in themselves. The imperative mood forms are not just commands, invitations, requests or prohibitions. They are a perfect means of rendering an abundance of human emotions. A wide range of subjunctive mood forms offers a good stylistic choice of synonymous ways to verbalize one and the same idea.

33. Literary Text as a Poetic Structure. Literary text has two layers: verbal and supraverbal. Verbal layer is represented by words which are combined into phrases, phrases are combined into sentences, sentences - into paragraphs, which in their turn make up large units. Supraverbal and verbal layers are inseparable from each other, and it is impossible to change anything in the form of the text without causing the changes in the contents. We talk about the cohesion of two layers of the literary text.

Poetic structure of a literary text, its supraverbal layer, involves such entities as image, theme, idea, composition and genre. As components of poetic structure they are essentially inseparable from each other, but as basic categories of the theory of literature they may be treated in isolation. Image. Literature interprets life by recreating it in the form of images inspired by life and in accordance with the author's point of view. All images in the literary work present a hierarchy. The top-image is the macro-image, i.e. the literary work itself, understood as an image of life envisioned and depicted by the writer. Within the literary work the top position is occupied by the image of character/characters. At the bottom of the hierarchy there is a word-image (a micro-image): simile, metaphor, epithet. They together with other elements create event-images, landscape-images, etc. Each micro-image, taken separately, is just a SD, but within the poetic structure of the text it is an element which, together with other elements, helps to express the content.

Theme. The theme of the literary work can be understood as an interaction of human characters under certain circumstances, such as some social or psychological conflict. Within a single work, the basic theme can alternate with rival themes and by-themes. For example, in War and Peace the basic theme is the life of the Russian society of the first half of XIX century, the rival theme is the family relationships, by-themes are numerous. Theme is more general than idea (message).

Idea. Idea is the underlined thought and emotional attitude transmitted by the whole poetic structure of the literary text. Idea is the mode of representation, which reveals the unity of form and content.

Composition. The subject matter of a literary work (the sequence of events, character collisions, etc.) may be represented in a variety of ways. Authors usually choose their technique according to the message they want to bring to the reader. Composition is closely connected with plot. Plot is a sequence of events in which the characters are involved, the theme and idea are revealed. The usual elements of the plot are exposition, story, climax and denouement. The arrangement of all this elements makes up the composition of the literary work.