1.St-s is a The subject of stylistics. Its connection with other disciplines.branch of general linguistics.which has to do with expressive possibilities o the language, its vocabulary, thesrtucture, and the sound arrangements of the sentence or the paragraph. St-s – is regarded as a lang-ge science which deals with the results of the act of communication. There are 2 basic objects of st-s: - stylistic devices and figures of speech; - functional styles. Tasks: analysis of the evolution of styles in connection with the history of literary standard, investigation into the language of fiction and its development, universal laws of literary composition (including poetics), genres of communication The term stylistics is derived from the word «style». The word style goes back to the Latin word «stilos». The Romans called thus a sharp stick used for writing on wax tablets. It was already in Latin that the meaning of the word «stilos» came to denote not only the tool of writing, but also the manner of writing. With this new meaning the word was borrowed into European languages. Stylistics, then, is a branch of linguistics dealing with variants, varieties of linguistic expression and, hence, with the subsystems making up the general system of language. These sub-systems are created by extra-lingual factors but at the same time they have linguistic contents, i.e. they differ lingually from one another. Being itself a system of signs, language may be subdivided into parallel sub-systems, synonymous to one another. For example, special sub-systems are made up by:
1) neutral type of linguistic intercourse;
2) sub-standard (i.e. lying below the standard) type;
3) super-standard (High-flown^ solemn or official) type.
To these three sub-systems the following three synonymous
sentences may be referred:
1. The old man is dead.
2. The old bean has kicked the bucket.
3. The gentleman well advanced in years has attained the
termination of his terrestrial existence.
Everybody understands the linguistic distinctions of different, but synonymous ways of expressing the similar idea. The ultimate aim of stylistics is to establish the objective laws and practical rules of using proper linguistic forms in proper situations to find out which form among the. multitude of synonymous linguistic means conforms to the given extralingua)
circumstances.
2. Stylistics interacts with such theoretical discipline as semasiology. This is a branch of linguistics whose area of study is a most complicated and enormous sphere – that of meaning. The term semantics is also widely used in linguistics in relation to verbal meanings. Semasiology in its turn is often related to the theory of signs in general and deals with visual as well as verbal meanings. Meaning is not attached to the level of the word only, but also all of them:—morphemes, words, phrases or texts.There are numerous types of linguistic meanings attached to linguistic units, such as grammatical, lexical, logical, denotative, connotative, emotive, evaluative, expressive and stylistic.
Onomasiology (or onomatology) is the theory of naming dealing with the choic e of words when naming or as sessing some obje ct or phenomenon. In stylistic analysis we often have to do with a transfer of nominal meaning in a text (antonomasia, metaphor, metonymy, etc.) The theory of functional styles investigatesисследует the structure of the national linguistic space – what constitutes the literary language, the sublanguages and dialects mentioned more than once already. Literary stylistics will inevitably overlapнеизбежно пересекаются with areas of literary studies such as the theory of imagery, literary genres, the art of composition, etc. Decoding stylistics in many ways bordersграницы culture studies in the broad sense of that word including the history of art, aesthetic trends and even information theory.
3. Shannon's Information Theory .What is Information Theory Information theory deals with measurement and transmission of information through a channel.
A fundamental work in this area is the Shannon's Information Theory, which provides many useful tools that are based on measuring information in terms of bits or - more generally - in terms of (the minimal amount of) the complexity of structures needed to encode a given piece of information.
Shannon’s ideas
Form the basis for the field of Information Theory
Provide the yardsticks for measuring the efficiency of communication system.
Identified problems that had to be solved to get to what he described as ideal communications systems
In defining information, Shannon identified the critical relationships among the elements of a communication system the power at the source of a signal the bandwidth or frequency range of an information channel through which the signal travels the noise of the channel, such as unpredictable static on a radio, which will alter the signal by the time it reaches the last element of the System the receiver, which must decode the signal.
Shannon's law is any statement defining the theoretical maximum rate at which error free digits can be transmitted over a bandwidth
limited channel in the presence of noise
Conclusion:
Shannon’s Information Theory provide us the basis for the field of Information Theory
Identify the problems we have in our communication system
We have to find the ways to reach his goal of effective communication system.
4. Individual Style. The Problem of the Norm.
With the dev-nt of the theory of l-ge, on the one hand and the theory of lit-re, on the other, the meaning of the wd “style” came to be modified as a style in l-ge and style in lit-re.
Style in l-ge is understood to be the whole corpus of expressing means of the l-ge. Style can appreciated as a result of an analysis of verbal sequences constituting a literary text – individual style idea.
One of the essential properties of a truly IS is its permanence. It has great power of endurance. It’s easily recognized and never loses its esthetic value. In every IS we can find both the general and the particular. The greater the author is the more genuine his S is.
If we succeed in isolating and examining the writer’s choises we can define what are the particulars that make up his S and make it recognizable.
IS c/b defined as a unique comb-n of l-ge units, expressive means of stylistic devices peculiar to a given writer which makes that writer’s works. Ex., Hemingway “the principle of iceberg», Oscar Whild “paradox”.
Norm. selection or choice of l-ge and the ways the chosen elements are treated are the main distinctive features of IS.
The treatment of selected el-ts brings forth the problem of the norm. stylistic norm is understood to be that which characterizes most if not all texts of different types.
It presupposes a recognized standard, the choice of an el-nt of a number of others is understood to be a stylistic choise. Ex. I trust you (st-ly neutral), I have confidence in you.
5. Stylistic and Linguistic Contexts
The notion of context is one of the main categ-s used for the purposes of interpretation. Spoken commun-n is easier due to the existence of communicational aids, such as eye contact, inf-n, gestures and other clues by which the speaker can determine whether the inf-n is correctly understood.
In written comm.-n the writer has to do much more to get the message across. The reader and writer are separated in space and time. Besides there are some complexities of expressive and esthetic connotations to be transmitted.
C is a set of circumstances or events surrounding some particular situation. There are different types of C: gramm-l, cultural, linguistic and stylistic. The essence of the theory of ling-c C was put forward by Pr. Anosova: “each wd has a registered dictionary meaning”. How can we know in what particular meaning the word is used? An-va claims that the wd+its indicator makes up ling-c C.
Indicator is the indicative ling-c meaning, allowing to understand the wd correctly. Ling-c C provides high quality of inf-n transmission to the listener. Ex. Brave knight – dark night.
The theory of st-c C was worked out by Michael Riphoter.
SC acc. to him is a piece of a literary text brought by the appearance of some certain el-nt with low predictability. Each following el-nt of the l-ge in a way prepares the appearance of the next. In the chain of predictable elements nothing attracts the reader’s attention. But if insite this chain smth fresh and unexpected appears it is sure to arrest the reader’s att-n.
He considers the C not only surrounding which helps to understand this or that el-nt but a surrounding together with the el-nt. He regards the st-c device as a contextual entity.
Acc to him every syl-c device is based on the principle of defeated expectancy. That’s the phenomena of breaking the flood of speech by introducing a certain el-nt of low predictability. Ex.: there was a big shelf of superbly books. (the books nobody has read).
6.levels of anguage
Skrebnev first
The smallest unit of lang-ge is the phoneme.Phoneimic level Several phonemes combined make a unit of a higher level – morpheme (morphemic level). One or more morphemes makes a word, a lexeme (lexical level). One or more than one words make an utterance, a sentence (sentence level). . We can also single out paragraph level and even text level. In other words, we discover that language presents a hierarchy of levels, from the lowest up to the highest.
Each level is described by a ‘level discipline’: phonetics, morphology, lexicology, syntax. Of course, stylistics does not fit in here. For stylistics is not a level discipline (just as history of language is), because stylistics pertains to all the levels, to every level. Stylistics must be subdivided into separate, quite independent branches, treating one level each: stylistic phonetics, stylistic morphology, stylistic lexicology, stylistic syntax.