32. Modern Eng.Formation of the national language.Expansion

Mostly, the rise of English to its position as the world's main international language was a result of chance. Britain was the world's most active colonial nation in the 19th century, and British explorers and colonists took their language with them wherever they went. English became the official language of most of Britain's colonies. In the 20th century, America has been the world's most powerful nation - and Americans have brought the English language to other countries of the world.

Over a thousand years ago, when the roots of modern Europe were being formed, western Europe was divided into three sections: in the East there were people who spoke Slavonic languages, in the middle there were people speaking Germanic languages (including Scandinavians), and in the south and west there were people speaking "Romance" languages, derived from Latin. In the far west of Europe, there were also people speaking Celtic languages, such as Gaelic.

In those days, England was a Germanic country; its people spoke a variety of Germanic languages including forms of Danish and Anglo Saxon, as well as some Celtic languages.

In 1066, England was conquered by the Normans, from France, who brought with them their own langage - Norman French - a Romance language.

In the years that followed, the nobility of England spoke French and read Latin, while the ordinary people spoke varieties of old English; but since they existed side by side, the two languages immediately began to influence each other. Norman French became Anglo-Norman, and Old English, picking up lots of vocabulary from Anglo-Normans, evolved into Middle English. Middle English was thus rather different from other European languages. It was partly Germanic (particularly the vocabulary of everyday life, the grammar and structures), and partly Romance (a lot of the more litterary vocabulary). Eventually, since Middle English was spoken by far the largest part of the population, it became the dominant language in England; and by the 14th century, it was well on the way to becoming the national language, not just for everyday life, but for administration and literature too.

Finally, English also replaced Latin as the language of the church. The Bible had been translated into English in the 14th century; but it was not until the Protestant reformation of the 16th century, that English became the language of church services. From then on, its position as the national language of Britain, was firmly established.

English became the established national language just at the point in history when colonial expansion was beginning. It was the spoken and written language of the first men and women from Britain to settle in the Americas; and it was a language that went round the world with England's early traders, commercial adventurers and missionaries.By the year 1700, England had become the world's leading nation in terms of international trade, ensuring that the English language was taken all over the world as the principal language of international commerce.

Modern English

In recent times, as English has become a global language, used in different places all over the world, it has become a much richer language than in the past. It has picked up new words from other cultures, Today, both grammar and vocabulary are still changing. There is no such thing as "official English"; neither Britain nor the USA has anything official to decide what is acceptable and what is not. The most accepted sources of reference are the famous English dictionaries - Websters for the USA and the Oxford English Dictionary for British English. Like other dictionaries however, they are descriptive not prescriptive - i.e. they describe language as it is used, they do not tell people what they can or should say or should not say.

Today's English is different from the English of 100 years ago; it is pronounced differently too - and no doubt, it will be even more different in 100 years' time.

33,34 Early Modern English Phonetic Changes

The changes in the sound system of the period were significant. The process of the levelling of endings continued, there were positional and assimilative changes of short vowels, and a significant change in the whole system of long vowels, called the Great Vowel Shift. During the period the process of simplification of consonant clusters and loss of consonants in certain positions continued. The changes were as follows: Loss of unstressed e

The process of levelling of endings led to total disappearance of the neutral sound ə marked by letter e in the endings though in spelling the letter might be preserved: no vowel is found in kept, slept, crossed, played; walls, pens, bones, stones - but it is preserved in stresses, dresses; wanted, parted; watches,.

The whole syllables might be lost in the Early New English pronunciation of long words.

The sound e before r changed into a:. This change in many cases was reflected in spelling: sterre – star( ME-NE); herte — heart; Long Vowels .Beginning in the 15 century, all long vowels that existed in Middle English change their quality. All long vowels narrowed, and the narrowest of them turned into diphthongs. The shift resulted in the followings changes: i: —> ai time, like,E—> i; meet, see, in borrowed words chief, receive, seize

e: open) —> into e: closed, then —» i: speak, sea

a: —> ei take, make; o: open,—> ou, home, oak,

o: closed —> u:, do, root ; u: —> au house, mouse,

The Great Vowel Shift affected all long vowels in native as well as borrowed before it words.The causes of the shift have not yet been clarified, as well as its direction. Wilhelm Horn and Martin Lenhert suggest that it resulted from intonation conditions - a high tone which is characteristic of English emotional speech naturally makes sound narrower.

The diphthongs that arose as a result of the Great Vowel Shift did not enrich the phonological system of the language; such diphthongs had already existed in Middle English. Nor were the long vowels [i:] and [u:] new: what sounded [i:] in time and was diphthongized into [ai], was replaced by the change [e:] and [e: open] —> [ i:] in see, sea; hous yielded [u:] to [au], but as a result of the Great Vowel Shift [u:] appeared in words like moon and soon.

Depending on the following consonant, r in particular, there were somewhat different variants of vowels that appeared int the Great Vowel Shift. If the long vowel was followed by r the following variants appeared: are—> [eir] fare, compare with fate; ear—> [ier]fear (but feat); eer—>[ier] steer (but steep); ir —>[aier] tire (but time);or—>[o:r] boar (but boat);o open —>[uer] moor (but moon);u—> [auer] power (but house)

Short vowels were changed, too, but the changes here are not that systematic. The vowels changed depending on their environment. Short a found in closed syllables generally changed into æ: that; man; hat

If it was preceded by the sound w, it remained unchanged and eventually developed into /o:/ war; want;

It was lengthened before some consonant clusters and turned into a: when followed by: a + th father; rather; a + ss pass; class; a + st cast; last; a + sk ask; mask; a + sp clasp, gasp, a + lm alms; balm; a + If calf half, a + nt, nd, nch etc. plant, a + ft after; craft; When the same sound was followed by 1 + consonant (other that m and n) it turned into long o: all; call; talk; walk; stalk

The sound r changed its quality, turning from backlingual into uvular and was vocalized after vowels; that resulted in lengthening of the preceding vowels in combinations ir, ur, or, er turning them into ə : fir, fur, word; person