3. Foreign Elements in Modern English.

The term “source of borrowing” should be distinguished from the term “origin of borrowing”. The first should be applied to the language from which the loan word was taken into English. The second, on the other hand, refers to the language to which the word may be traced. Thus, the word paper<Fr papier<Lat papyrus<Gr papyrus has French as its source of borrowing and Greek as its origin.

Alongside loan words proper, we distinguish loan translation аnd semantic loans.

Translation loans are words or expressions formed from the elements existing in the English language according to the patterns of the source language. They are not taken into the vocabulary of another language more or less in the same phonemic shape in which they have been functioning in their own language, but undergo the process of translation. It is quite obvious that it is only compound words (i. e. words of two or more stems) which can be subjected to such an operation, each stem being translated separately: masterpiece (from Germ. Meisterstück), wonder child (from Germ. Wunderkind), first dancer (from Ital. prima-ballerina), the moment of truth (from Sp. el momento de la verdad), collective farm (from Rus. колхоз), five-year plan (from Rus. пятилетка).

The Russian колхоз was borrowed twice, by way of translation-loan (collective farm) and by way of direct borrowing (kolkhoz).

The case is not unique. During the 2nd World War the German word Blitzkrieg was also borrowed into English in two different forms: the translation-loan lightning-war and the direct borrowings blitzkrieg and blitz.

Eng. chain-smoker ↔ Ger. Kettenraucher;

Eng. wall newspaper ↔ Rus. стенная газета; ↔ Ukr. настінна газета;

Eng. (it) goes without saying ↔ Fr (cela) vasans dire;

Eng. summit conference ↔ Ger. Gipfet Konferenz ↔ Fr. conference au sommet.

The term semantic loan, is used to denote the development in an English word of a new meaning due to the influence of a related word in another language, e.g. the compound word shock brigade which existed in the English language with the meaning “аварийна бригада” acquired a new meaning “ударная бригада” which it borrowed from the Russian language.

Eng. pioneer − explorer; one who is among the first in new fields of activity; →

Rus пионер − a member of the Young Pioneers' Organization.

Sometimes the borrowing process is to fill a gap in vocabulary. When the Saxons borrowed Latin words for butter, plum, beet, they did it because their own vocabularies lacked words for these new objects. For the same reason the words potato and tomato were borrowed by English from Spanish when these vegetables were first brought to England by the Spaniards.

But there is also a great number of words which are borrowed for other reasons. There may be a word (or even several words) which expresses some particular concept, so that there is no gap in the vocabulary and there does not seem to be any need for borrowing. Yet, one more word is borrowed which means almost the same, — almost, but not exactly. It is borrowed because it represents the same concept in some new aspect, supplies a new shade of meaning or a different emotional colouring. This type of borrowing enlarges groups of synonyms and greatly provides to enrich the expressive resources of the vocabulary. That is how the Latin cordial was added to the native friendly, the French desire to wish, the Latin admire and the French adore to like and love.

Latin Loans are classified into the subgroups.

1. Early Latin Loans. Those are the words which came into English through the language of Anglo-Saxon tribes. The tribes had been in contact with Roman civilization and had adopted several Latin words denoting objects belonging to that civilization long before the invasion of Angles, Saxons and Jutes into Britain (cup, kitchen, mill, port, wine).

2. Later Latin Borrowings. To this group belong the words which penetrated the English vocabulary in the sixth and seventh centuries, when the people of England were converted to Christianity (priest, bishop, nun, candle).

3. The third period of Latin includes words which came into English due to two historical events: the Norman conquest in 1066 and the Renaissance or the Revival of Learning. Some words came into English through French but some were taken directly from Latin (major, minor, intelligent, permanent).

4. The Latest Stratum of Latin Words. The words of this period are mainly abstract and scientific words (nylon, molecular, vaccine, phenomenon, vacuum).

Norman-French Borrowings may be subdivided into subgroups:

1. Early loans – 12^th – 15^th century

2. Later loans – beginning from the 16^th century.

The Early French borrowings are simple short words, naturalized in accordance with the English language system (state, power, war, pen, river). Later French borrowings can be identified by their peculiarities of form and pronunciation (regime, police, ballet, scene, bourgeois) (table 1).

Table 1

The Etymological Structure of English Vocabulary
The native element	The borrowed element
I. Indo-European element II. Germanic element III. English Proper element (no earlier than 5th c. A. D.)	I. Celtic (5th — 6th c. A. D.) II. Latin 1st group: 1st с. В. С. 2nd group: 7th c. A. D. 3rd group: the Renaissance period III. Scandinavian (8th — 11th c. A. D.) IV. French 1. Norman borrowings: 11th — 13th c. A. D. 2. Parisian borrowings (Renaissance) V. Greek (Renaissance) VI. Italian (Renaissance and later) VII. Spanish (Renaissance and later) VIII. German IX. Indian X. Russian And some other groups

There are certain structural features which enable us to identify some words as borrowings and even to determine the source language. You can also recognise the origin of borrowings by certain suffixes, prefixes or endings which are given in Appendix 1.

Lexical correlations are defined as lexical units from different languages which are phonetically and semantically related. The number of Ukrainian-English lexical correlations is about 6870.

The history of the Slavonic-German ties resulted in the following correlations:

beat − бити, call − голос, day − день,

widow − вдова, young − юний.

Semantically Ukrainian-English lexical correlations are various. They may denote everyday objects and commonly used things:

brutal − брутальний, cap − капелюх, cold − холодний, ground − грунт, kettle − котел, kitchen − кухня,

lily − лілія, money − монета, quart − кварта, sister − cecтpa, wolf − вовк

Some Ukrainian - English lexical correlations have common Indo-European background:

garden − город,

murder − мордувати,

soot − сажа.

Beside Ukrainian - English lexical correlaitons the Ukrainian language contains borrowings from modern English period:

брифіг − briefing; диск-жокей − disk-jockey; ескапізм − escapis; естеблішмент − establishment;

xiт парад − hit parade; кітч, халтура − kitch; масс-медія − mass media; cepiaл − serial.