
- •1. Phonetics as a science
- •2. Articulatory aspect of speech sounds
- •3. Acoustic aspect of speech sounds
- •4. Functional aspect of speech sounds
- •5. Methods of phonological analysis
- •6. Orthorgaphy and its principles
- •7. National language, national variants, dialects
- •8. American English as a national variety of the English language
- •9. Variations of pronunciation within orthoepic norms
- •10. Received Pronunciation. Classifications of main types
- •11. Received Pronunciation. Changes of vowel and consonant quality
- •12. Main differences between southern and northern dialects of England
- •13. Aspects of the phoneme
- •14. Allophones
- •15. Main trends in phoneme theory
- •16. Assimilation
- •17. Accommodation, elision and insertion of consonants
- •18. The problem of affricates
- •19. Classification of English consonant phonemes according to the manner of articulation
- •20. Classification of English consonant phonemes according to the place of articulation and active organ of speech
- •21. Classification of English consonant phonemes according to the degree of noise, work of vocal cords, force of articulation and position of the soft palate
- •22. Classification of English vowel phonemes according to the position of the tongue
- •23. Classification of English vowel phonemes according to the stability of articulation
- •24. Classification of English vowel phonemes according to the lip position, length, tenseness and character of vowel end
- •25. The phonemic status of English diphthongs and triphthongs
- •26. The unstressed vocalism of the English language
- •27. Accommodation and reduction of English vowels
- •28. Classification of syllables
- •29. Theories of the syllable
- •30. Rules of syllable division
- •31. Functions of the syllable
- •32. Word stress and its classification
- •33. English word accentuation tendencies
- •34. Functions of word stress
- •35. Interrelation of word stress and sentence stress
- •36. Voice pitch as one of the components of intonation
- •37. Sentence stress
- •38. Temporal and tambral components of intonation
- •39. The communicative function of intonation
- •40. Extralinguistic situation and its components
- •41. Classification of phonetic styles on suprasegmental level
- •42. Classification of phonetic styles on segmental level. Stylistic modifications of sounds
- •43. Style-modifying factors
- •44. Speech culture and speech etiquette
17. Accommodation, elision and insertion of consonants
Accommodation is the process of mutual influence of consonants and vowels.
- labialization of Cs under the influence of the following Vs [o, o:, u, u:, a:] resulting in lip rounding (pool, rude, ball, car);
- labialization of Cs under the influence of following or preceding Vs [i, i:] resulting in lip spreading (tea-eat, feet-leaf, keep-leak, pill-tip);
- palatalization of Cs under the influence of Vs [i, i:] (part-pit, top-tip).
Elision is complete loss of sounds.
- loss of [h] in personal and posessive pronouns he, hie, her, him and the forms of have;
- loss of [l] after [ɔ:];
- alveolar plosive is lost if followed by another C: next day ['neks 'deɪ];
- whole syllables in rapid speech: library ['laɪbri];
- historical elision: kn, wr, medial t.
Insertion:
- linking 'r': summer expedition;
- intrusive 'r': the idea of;
- j (i-gliding): trying;
- w (u-gliding): going.
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18. The problem of affricates
Are the English affricates monophonemic bicentral entities or biphonemic combinations of two different elements? If they are, then how many affricate phonemes are there in English?
RU: [tʃ, ʤ]; some foreign linguists: [tʃ, ʤ, ts, dz, tr, dr, tθ, dð].
Criteria:
- syllabic indivisibility (sometimes [tʃ, ts, tr, tθ] belong to one syllable);
- articulatory indivisibility (all the sound complexes are homogeneous and produced by one articulatory effort);
- duration (depends on the position in the phonetic context);
- morphological indivisibility (difficult with [tr, dr], because in some cases they are inseparable: tray-ray).
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19. Classification of English consonant phonemes according to the manner of articulation
Consonants are sounds made with air stream that meets an obstruction in the oral or nasal cavities.
1) occlusive - complete obstruction:
- plosives (stops) - breath is stopped at some point of articulation and then released with an explosion [p, b, t, d, k, g];
- sonorants [m, n, ŋ];
2) constrictive (air passage is constricted and an incomplete obstruction is formed):
- fricatives - air passes through the narrowing with friction [f, v, Ɵ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ჳ, h];
- sonorants: medial (air goes down the center of the tongue - [w, r, j], lateral (passes along the sides of the tongue - [l]);
3) occlusive-constrictive (affricates) - a complete obstruction is formed, it becomes incomplete and it is released slowly with friction [ʧ, dჳ].
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20. Classification of English consonant phonemes according to the place of articulation and active organ of speech
The place of articulation is determined by active organ of speech against the point of articulation.
1) labial: bilabial - produced when both lips are active [p, b, m, w], labio-dental - produced with the lower lip against the edge of the upper teeth [f, v];
2) lingual:
forelingual - produced with the tip or the blade of the tongue:
(according to the tip of the tongue)
- apical - tip is active [t, d, s, z, ʃ, ჳ, Ɵ, ð, ʧ, dჳ, n,l];
- dorsal - blade takes part in the articulation, the tip is passive and lowered;
- cacuminal - tip is at the back part of the teeth ridge, but a depression is formed in the blade of the tongue [r];
(according to the place of obstruction)
- interdental - tip b/w the teeth [Ɵ, ð];
- dental - blade against the upper teeth;
- alveolar - tip against the upper teeth ridge [t, d, s, z, n, l];
- post-alveolar - tip or blade is against the back part of the teeth ridge or just behind it [r];
- palato-alveolar - tip or blade against the teeth ridge and the front part is raised towards the hard palate [ʧ, dჳ, ʃ, ჳ];
mediolingual - front part of the tongue: palatal [j];
backlingual - back part of the tongue raised towards the soft palate: velar [k, g, ŋ];
3) glottal - in the glottis - [h].
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