- •1. Phonetics as a science
- •2. Articulatory aspect of speech sounds
- •3. Acoustic aspect of speech sounds
- •4. Functional aspect of speech sounds
- •5. Methods of phonological analysis
- •6. Orthorgaphy and its principles
- •7. National language, national variants, dialects
- •8. American English as a national variety of the English language
- •9. Variations of pronunciation within orthoepic norms
- •10. Received Pronunciation. Classifications of main types
- •11. Received Pronunciation. Changes of vowel and consonant quality
- •12. Main differences between southern and northern dialects of England
- •13. Aspects of the phoneme
- •14. Allophones
- •15. Main trends in phoneme theory
- •16. Assimilation
- •17. Accommodation, elision and insertion of consonants
- •18. The problem of affricates
- •19. Classification of English consonant phonemes according to the manner of articulation
- •20. Classification of English consonant phonemes according to the place of articulation and active organ of speech
- •21. Classification of English consonant phonemes according to the degree of noise, work of vocal cords, force of articulation and position of the soft palate
- •22. Classification of English vowel phonemes according to the position of the tongue
- •23. Classification of English vowel phonemes according to the stability of articulation
- •24. Classification of English vowel phonemes according to the lip position, length, tenseness and character of vowel end
- •25. The phonemic status of English diphthongs and triphthongs
- •26. The unstressed vocalism of the English language
- •27. Accommodation and reduction of English vowels
- •28. Classification of syllables
- •29. Theories of the syllable
- •30. Rules of syllable division
- •31. Functions of the syllable
- •32. Word stress and its classification
- •33. English word accentuation tendencies
- •34. Functions of word stress
- •35. Interrelation of word stress and sentence stress
- •36. Voice pitch as one of the components of intonation
- •37. Sentence stress
- •38. Temporal and tambral components of intonation
- •39. The communicative function of intonation
- •40. Extralinguistic situation and its components
- •41. Classification of phonetic styles on suprasegmental level
- •42. Classification of phonetic styles on segmental level. Stylistic modifications of sounds
- •43. Style-modifying factors
- •44. Speech culture and speech etiquette
12. Main differences between southern and northern dialects of England
Northern:
- 'u' - [ʊ] (put, cut);
- [ʊ] - [u:] (book [bu:k]);
- [ɑː] - [a] (cart);
- [e] - [ɛ] (dress - more open);
- [æ] - [a] (cat);
- [ei] & [əʊ] - [e:] & [o] (face, goat);
- rhotic.
Southern:
- reduced amount of H-dropping;
- increased amount of th-fronting;
- fronting of [u:] (foot);
- nonrhotic.
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13. Aspects of the phoneme
1. Material, real and objective (exists in the form of allophones) - constitutive function.
2. Abstractional and generalized - recognitive function.
3. Functional (the smallest language unit capable of differentiating words and their grammatical forms) - distinctive function.
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14. Allophones
1. Principal (do not undergo any distinguishable changes in the chain of speech, the greatest number of articulatory features among all the variants of the phoneme).
2. Subsidiary:
- combinatory (influenced by neighboring sounds);
- positional (traditionally used in certain positions).
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15. Main trends in phoneme theory
Mentalistic (psychological) view regards P. as an ideal “mental image” or a target at which the speaker aims. Actually pronounced speech sounds are imperfect realizations of the phoneme existing
in the mind but not in the reality. Baudauin de Courtenay.
Ferdinand de Saussure – the phoneme is not something sounding but something disembodied. It is formed not by its material substance but only by the differences that separate its acoustic image from others.
Abstract view regards P. as essentially independent of the acoustic and physiological properties associated with them, that is of speech sounds.
Physical view (material aspect of the phoneme) by D. Jones, B. Bloch, G. Trager.
P. is a family of sounds, which have phonetic similarity and occur in different phonetic context.
It's criticized, because the definition 'A phoneme is a mechanical sum of its allophones' is vulgarly materialistic and metaphysical. P. cannot be defined as the sum of its allophones, though it includes all of them.
Functional view by R. Jakobson and M. Halle, L. Bloomfield.
P. is a bundle of distinctive features.
16. Assimilation
Assimilation is the modification of a consonant under the influence of the neighboring consonant.
Direction:
- progressive (dogs),
- regressive (width),
- reciprocal (tree).
Degree of completeness:
- complete (two adjoining sounds become alike or merge into one - deffer only in one articulatory feature): less shy;
- incomplete: sweet.
Degree of stability:
- obligatory (historical): orchard (ort + yard);
- non-obligatory: ten minutes.
Changes in the place of articulation:
[t], [d] + [θ], [ð] = dental (partial regressive): read this;
[t], [d] + [r] = post-alveolar (partial regressive): dream;
[s], [z] + [∫] = palato-alveolar (complete regressive): does she;
[n], [m] + [f], [v] = labio-dental (partial regressive): confort;
[n] + [t∫] = palato-alveolar;
[n] + [k] = velar: congress.
Changes in the manner of articulation:
loss of plosion (plosive + plosive);
nasal plosion (plosive + nasal sonorant): sudden;
lateral plosion (plosive + [l]): little.
Changes in the work of vocal cords:
fortis voiceless C + sonorant = S. partially devoiced;
newspaper ["njuːsˌpeɪpə] under the influence of the voiceless [p];
contracted forms 's may be devoiced depending on the preceding C.
Changes in the lip position:
C + [w] = lip-rounded: quite.
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