Текст 10000 знаков с переводом про Индию / ASIA 1
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INDIA
Official name. Republic of India. Bharat.
Status. Independent state, a republic.
Area. 1,266,595 sq. mi. (3,287,600 sq. km). India is about the
same size as the continent of Europe.
Population. 930 mln. (1995 est.).
Nationality. Indian.
Capital. New Delhi (9 mln.).
Location (see map No 11, p. 235). South-central Asia, occupying
the major portion of the Indian subcontinent. The country is in
the form of a triangle with its base in the north on the Himalayas
and its apex, 2,000 mi. south, at Cape Comorin. India is bordered
on the north by China and Nepal; on the east by Bangladesh
and Burma, on the northwest by Pakistan and Afghanistan.
Features: India's geography varies from the massive Himalayan range in the north, to the endlessly flat, densely populated Gangetic Plain, to the barren stretches of central India, to the tropical, palm-covered Kerala coast.
The country consists of three major topographical areas: 1) the Himalaya Mountains extending along the whole of the northern border. They include the highest mountains in the world. Most of the Himalayas are in Nepal and Tibet, and the highest point in India is Nanda Devi (25,645 feet) in Uttar Pradesh; 2) the river plains that cover most of the rest of northern India: the Punjab plains, the valleys of the Ganges, Jumna and Gogra, and the Ganges delta; 3) the Deccan Plateau, or southern table-land, which forms the peninsular part of India. lt is a moderate elevation and less densely populated.
India has a tropical monsoon climate, with great extremes of temperature. Rainfall varies: it depends on the monsoon. It is generally heavy in Bengal and Assam (over 300 inches per year) and the river valleys, more moderate in the south, and as little as 4 inches in the Thar Desert. Chief rivers: Ganges, Brahmaputra, Godavari, Krishna, Jumna.
History. India has one of the oldest civilizations in the world. Excavations trace the Indus Valley civilization back for at least 5,000 years. Paintings in the mountain caves of Ajanta, richly carved temples, the Taj Mahal in Agra, and the Kutab Minar in Delhi are among relics of the past.
Aryan tribes, speaking Sanskrit, invaded from the NW. around 1500 В. C., and merged with the earlier inhabitants to create classical Indian civilization.
Asoka ruled most of the Indian subcontinent in the III century В. C., and established Buddhism, but Hinduism revived and eventually predominated. During the Gupta kingdom, IV—VI century A. D., science, literature, and the arts enjoyed a "golden age".
Arab invaders established a Moslem foothold in the W. in the VIII century, and Turkish Moslems gained control of North India by 1200. Much of north and central India was united during the XVI century and declined during the XVIII. (The Mogul emperors ruled 1526—1857.) From the early XVI century the Portuguese, Dutch, English, and later the French set up trading posts in India.
Vasco da Gama established Portuguese trading posts 1498— 1503. The Dutch followed, the British East India Co. sent Captain William Hawkins, 1609, to get concessions from the Mogul emperor for spices and textiles. With the decline of the Mogul empire the British and the French each tried to win control of the country. During the Seven Years' War (1756—1763) the British East India Company defeated the French, and from then on gradually won control of almost the whole of India, by 1850.
For a long time India was the biggest of the British colonies, the "biggest jewel in the British Crown", and the feudal and colonial heritage is still strongly felt in its present-day political, economic and social life.
The people of India have courageously fought for their independence. In 1857 the Sepoy troops mutinied, but their mutiny was brutally suppressed by the British a year later. After the Indian Mutiny (1857—1858) the control of India passed from the East India Company to the British Crown, and Queen Victoria became Empress of India in 1877. Indian desire for self-government expressed itself in the founding of the National Congress in 1885 and the Moslem League (1906).
The Indian National Congress and the Moslem League demanded constitutional reform. A leader emerged in Mohandas K. Gandhi (called Mahatma, or Great Soul), born Oct. 2, 1869, assassinated Jan. 30, 1948. He began advocating self-rule, non-violence, removal of untouchability in 1919. In 1930 he launched "civil disobedience", including boycott of British goods and rejection of taxes without representation.
In 1935 Britain gave India a constitution providing a bicameral federal congress.
The British government partitioned British India into the dominions of India and Pakistan. Aug. 15, 1947, was designated Indian Independence Day. India became a self-governing member of the Commonwealth and a member of the UN. It became a democratic republic, Jan. 26, 1950.
British colonialists broke up their former colony into two countries — Pakistan and India — according to differences in religion. The national composition of the Indian population which professes Hinduism, is extremely varied. It consists of many nations, peoples, tribes and. even races. Successive invasions and a long period of subjugation under alien rule have made what is India today — a land of diverse, often conflicting cultures, religions.
Partition of the nation into the independent dominions of India (mainly Hindu) and Pakistan (mainly Moslem) was the cause of much political violence and a great movement of refugees, in which many people lost their lives.
More than 12 million Hindu and Moslem refugees crossed the India-Pakistan borders in a mass transferral of some of the two peoples during 1947; about 200,000 were killed in communal fighting.
The princely states were allowed to join either Pakistan or India. The state of Kashmir and other areas were claimed by both countries: there was war between India and Pakistan over Kashmir
in 1965.
After Pakistan troops began attacks on Bengali separatists in East Pakistan, Mar. 25,1971, some 10 million refugees fled into India. India and Pakistan went to war Dec.3, 1971, on both the East and West fronts. Pakistan troops in the east surrendered Dec. 16; Pakistan agreed to a cease-fire in the west Dec. 17.
India and Pakistan signed a pact agreeing to withdraw troops from their borders and seek peaceful solutions, July 3, 1972. In Aug. 1973 India agreed to release 93,000 Pakistanis held prisoners since 1971; the return was completed in Apr. 1974. The two countries resumed full relations in 1976.
France, 1952—1954, peacefully yielded to India its 5 colonies, former French India.
Goa, 1,429 sq. mi., pop., 1981, 1 mln., which had been ruled by Portugal since 1505 A.D., was taken by India by military action Dec. 18, 1961, together with two other Portuguese enclaves, Daman and Diu, located near Bombay.
The Congress Party has governed the country since 1947, under Nehru until 1964, and under his daughter, Mrs Indira Gandhi,
1966—1984.
Long the dominant power in India's politics, the Congress Party lost some of its near monopoly by 1967. The party split into New and Old Congress parties in 1969. Mrs Gandhi's New Congress party won control of the House.
Threatened with adverse court ruling in a voting law case, an opposition protest campaign and strikes, Gandhi invoked emergency provisions of the constitution June 1975. Thousands of opponents were arrested and press censorship imposed. Measures to control prices, protect small farmers, and improve productivity were adopted.
With 350 candidates of her party winning seats to Parliament, Indira Gandhi became Prime Minister for the second time, Jan. 14, 1980. Since her assassination by Sikh extremists Oct. 31, 1984 Indira Gandhi has been replaced by her son Rajiv as Prime Minister.
India's persistent policy of non-alignment has made it a leading nation among the nonaligned countries. India has refused to join any military pacts and plays a prominent role in the struggle for peace. With domestic concerns receiving top priority, India's foreign policy has stressed keeping on good terms with as many countries as possible. India has friendly relations with our country.
Government. Type: Federal Republic. Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister.
Legislative body: Parliament (bicameral), consisting of the Lok Sabha (House of the People) and the Rajya Sabha (Council of States).
Local government: 25 states and 7 union territories, each with a governor appointed by the president and its own elected legislature.
States: Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Goa, Mizoram, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal.
Territories: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Chandigarth, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Delhi, Daman and Dui, Lakshadoweep, and Puttuchcheri.
Although the states enjoy a certain measure of autonomy, the central government retains effective control, and the parliament has the right to change the border of any state and to form new states. The President of the Republic can dissolve the local government.
Ethnic composition. Indo-Aryan (the Vedda, the Aryan) groups 72%, Dravidians 25%, Mongoloids 3%. The Dravidians are found mostly in the Deccan, the Indo-Aryan peoples mainly in the north and Kashmir, Mongoloid types in the northeast. Languages. Hindi (official) and English (associate official). In addition to Hindi, the constitution recognizes 14 national languages, although as many as 1,652 languages and dialects are spoken in the country. Hindi, however, is spoken by about 35% of the population, Telugu 9%, Bengali 8%, Marathi 8%, Tamil 7%, Urdu 6%, Gujarati 5%, Kanarese 4%, Punjabi 3%, Oriya 3%, Ma-layalam 3%.
To overcome the myriad languages and dialects, the British colonialists made English the communications medium of the elite, the tiny minority that still dominates the government, industry, education, and art. Attempts to dislodge English with Hindi have met with opposition from non-Hindi-speaking peoples. Religions. Hindus 83%, Moslems 11%, Christians 3%, Sikhs 2%. There are also Buddhists, Parsee and other religious minorities. The Hindus, who make up 83% of the population, are divided into countless castes. The caste system of the Hindus, who constitute the overwhelming majority of the Indian people, divides people on the basis of birth, language, and ethnic affiliation into innumerable separate groups. The castes are in a rigid hierarchical order, at the top of which is the most privileged of them, the Brahmin. At the bottom are harijans, who are called untouchables. Harijans (literally, God's children) are the most numerous and most despised caste in India. Traditionally, they engage in professions prescribed by religious convention as "unclean" (sweepers, leather-tanners, cobblers, and others).
Even today affiliation to caste also determines a person's craft or profession. By and large, people marry in their caste. When they are born, they are placed at a certain level of the caste hierarchy, according to which they stand above certain castes and below certain others. They do not stand on terms of equality with people belonging to lower castes. Today the caste system receives sustenance not only from semi-feudal survivals in the economy but also from the new capitalist elements in it. Economical development has led to a peculiar caste composition of the various classes. Most of the industrial workers in the older industries like mining, textiles, and plantations belong to the untouchable castes, a sizeable proportion of them belong to other backward castes, and only a small percentage are members of the so-called upper castes.
The masses are protesting against their exploiters, often through distorted caste forms. Their hatred is directed not against any specific rich person or the entire ruling class, but against his caste, including the exploited masses belonging to the caste of the exploiter. There is a strong tendency in many places to set up organizations based on the caste principle, and these organizations are led more often than not by feudal or bourgeois elements. Such organizations divide the workers, the peasants, and the people as a whole. In some places efforts are made to set up even trade unions based on castes.
The Moslem minority, 11% of the population, has remained suspect in the eyes of the majority ever since the creation of Pakistan. Bloody riots between Hindus and Moslems erupted periodically. Independent development is accompanied by the fusion of the population. Religious discord, once intentially fermented by the colonialists, is being overcome.
Education (1988). Literacy: 36%. Attendance: 42%.
Currency. Rupee.
Economy. Industries: textiles, steel, processed foods, cement, machinery, chemicals, fertilizers, consumer appliances, autos. Chief crops: rice, grains, coffee, sugar cane, spices, tea, cotton, copra, jute, linseed. Minerals: chromium, coal, iron, manganese, bauxite, gypsum, oil. Other resources: rubber, timber. Arable land: 57%.
About 50% of the gross national product comes from agriculture (rice, wheat, tea, jute, cotton, sugar, peanuts), and about 15% from mining and manufacturing (iron and steel, textiles, chemicals, cement, industrial machinery and equipment). Although the land is not poor, the people are.
One of the biggest countries in the world (whose population is over 800 million and grows yearly by 12 or 13 million), India belongs to what is called "developing countries".
Apart from the sharp antagonistic rivalry between the working class and peasantry on one hand, and the national bourgeoisie and landowners on the other, the social structure of the country, ever in self-conflict, is still very complicated.
When India achieved independence she was essentially a farming country and a supplier of raw materials. The living standard was one of the lowest in the world. India was periodically ravished by famines and epidemics which took a toll of millions of lives.
With the new "Green Revolution" farming techniques, increased irrigation facilities, and the "miracle" wheat and rice seeds, food production has doubled in the last ten years. As a result, India is moving close to self-sufficiency in food grains. At the same time, the "Green Revolution" did not solve the problems of agriculture, it serves the interests of big landowners, most of the Indian peasants belong to what is called petty peasantry (the land lots of 62% of peasants are less than 5 acres; 22% of the rural population have no land at all).
India had to set about reconstructing the entire economy, priority being given to industrialization. Alongside with the private enterprise, the state-owned sector is expanding. The country's successive five-year plans have laid the foundation for a prosperous industrial nation. Much industrial production, distribution and prices are regulated by law. Railroads, airlines, banks, insurance, and coal industries are state-owned as are some steel plants.
Largest cities. Delhi; Calcutta 9,9 mln.; Bombay (M. A.) 8,7 mln.; Madras 4,9 mln.; Bangalore 3,9 mln.; Hyderabad 2,8 mln.; Ahmeda-bad 2,3 mln.; Kanpur 1,7 mln.; Poona 1,7 mln.; Nagpur 1,3 mln.
DELHI, historic city of northwestern India; its new part, New Delhi, is the capital of the country. The surrounding area (574 sq. mi.) is the centrally administered Union Territory of Delhi. Delhi was founded in the middle of the XI century. Among the numerous monuments are mosques, towers, tombs. The greatest of the Mogul builders, Shah Jahan, constructed as his imperial palace the Lal Kila, now called the Fort. Its most renowned buildings are the Diwan-i-Am (public audience hall) and the Diwan-i-Khas (private audience hall), whose ceilings and walls are inlaid with precious stones and metals.
Near the Fort is the Raj Ghat, where the great national leader Mahatma Gandhi was cremated.
New Delhi, lies 4 mi. south of old Delhi. Built in the XX century, New Delhi offers examples of Indo-European architecture. NDH — airport code name for New Delhi, India.
CALCUTTA (Hindustani, Kalikata; original name, probably Kalighat, referring to a shrine of the goddess Kali in the vicinity), capital and seaport of West Bengal state, the chief commercial centre of Asia, served by several railroads and by national airlands steamship lines. Calcutta is the centre of the jute-manufacturing industry; there are also flour and paper manufacturing plants, match factories, chemical works, rice mills, vegetable-oil mills, ironworks, and tanneries.
Outstanding in Calcutta is the great Maidan, an extensive open space, 2 sq. mi. in area, adorned with statues of heroes and famous men. The National Library, Calcutta Museum, Victoria Memorial Hall (national gallery for India), Eden Gardens, the Ochterlony Monument (152 ft. high), St. Paul's Cathedral, the l3-storeyed Government House, and the Kalighat (a Hindu shrine) are some of Calcutta's most visited places. Calcutta University was established in 1857.
BOMBAY (also: Hindi, Bambai; Malay, Bambe; old Portuguese name, Boa Bahia, meaning "good harbour"), capital of Maharashtra State, and headquarters of the Indian navy. It is the second largest city of India, a seaport, a leading city of commerce, and an important terminus of the Indian railway system.
Bombay is the principal centre of India's textile trade and it manufactures about one fourth of India's cotton goods. Bombay played a special part in the history of the national liberation struggle of the Indian people. The navy men who mutinied there in 1946 were joined by the crews of nearly all ships in other Indian ports. The mutiny was backed by workers. This was the highest point of the revolutionary upsurge which led, in 1947, to India's independence.
Bombay rivals Calcutta as an intellectual focal point of modern India, and as a centre of publishing and printing. Bombay University (founded 1857) has affiliated colleges including 20 art schools and 17 professional schools.
MADRAS, city in S. India, capital of Tamil Nadu State and a seaport on the Bay of Bengal. It is the third largest city of India and the chief port of the State. There are cotton mills and many tanning plants in the city, and also tobacco, cotton processing, oil-cake, and metal industries. Madras University is one of the foremost academic centres of India. As focal point of the cultural life of the country's Tamil-speaking population the town is active also in the publishing and printing of both vernacular and English literature.
BANGALORE (also: Bangaleer), capital of Karnataka State, and southern India, ab. 180 mi. W. of Madras, at an altitude of 3,000 it. Its chief manufactures are carpets, cotton textiles, wooden goods, and leather goods. There are also many small industries. It is a basically modern town, it developed as an outpost of Western influence.
HYDERABAD (also Haidarabad), capital of the state of Andhra Pradesh, situated on the Musi River ab. 380 mi. SE. of Bombay in the heart of the Deccan Plateau, important commercial and railroad centre. It is the fourth largest city in India and architecturally one of the most remarkable cities of India. Hyderabad has always been an important trade centre; but it is only in recent years that sugar refineries and glass, sugar, paper, and machine tool factories have been added to the traditional manufacturing of textiles, leather goods, and pottery. The most distinctive feature of the city of Hyderabad lies in its mixed Hindu-Muslim culture, a characteristic of the Deccan.
AHMEDABAD (also: Ahmadabad), city in W. India, capital of Gujarat ab. 50 mi. N. of the head of the Bay of Bombay. One of the most important manufacturing cities of India, it is now the second in India in the production of cotton and has become highly industrialized. The Jumma Musjid of Ahmedabad, built by Ahmed Shah in the early XV century, is one of the most beautiful of mosques. A local proverb says that the prosperity of the city hangs on three threads — silk, gold, and cotton — referring to the old trades, which still employ a considerable number of artisans. Ahmadabad has played a significant role in the history of the freedom movement in India. It was long the scene of the activities of Mahatma Gandhi, who made Sabarmati Ashram, in the suburbs of the town, his school for training young freedom fighters.
KANPUR (also Cawnpore, Cawnpur), city in Uttar Pradesh State, N.-central Union of India on the S. bank of the Ganges River. Industries include flour mills, vegetable oil mills, bristle factories, and chemical works; of major importance are the leather, woollen, and cotton textile plants. It was an important military station under the British government and one of the centres of the Sepoy Mutiny. It is essentially a modern city and has several colleges and technical schools.
POONA (also: Pune, Poonah), capital of the district of Poona, in Maharashtra State, on the Muta River ab. 75 mi. SE. of Bombay. Its chief industries are cotton weaving and the manufacture of gold and silver thread and wire for embroidery and jewelry. West and north of the old town are several educational institutions, most notably Poona University (estab. 1949).
NAGPUR. seat of Nagpur District, former capital of Madhya Pradesh State but now included in Maharashtra State. It lies on the Deccan Plateau and is a highway and rail junction on the line linking Bombay, 420 mi. to the southwest, to Calcutta, 600 mi. to the northeast. Nagpur, a commercial and manufacturing centre, converts into yarn and cloth much of the cotton grown in central India. There are also brass, iron, paper, pottery and rubber-processing industries. The area is known for its oranges, exported to other parts of India.
India has a rich heritage in the cultural field which has been expressed in a variety of forms and in different languages. India's leading poet, Rabindranath Tagore, won the Nobel prize for literature, and the distinguished scientist Chandrasekhara Vankata Raman took the same award in sciences. Creative writing and the visual arts are supported by the government, and there continues to be an active public participation in music and dance.
India's ancient culture has always been imbued with the greatest human values: reason, goodness and justice. That is probably one of the reasons it survived and flourished.
Nikolai Roerich, the artist, philosopher, scholar and traveller, who featured prominently in XX century world culture, was one of the initiators of the movement to protect mankind's cultural values and always championed Indo-Russian friendship. Today his son Svyatoslav is successfully carrying on his father's tradition.
Roerich's work reveals a deep knowledge of ancient and medieval Indian art, such as the murals in the Ajanta Caves and Mogul miniatures. He has developed a highly original style of his own. which is a creative development of the great traditions of the two cultures, Russian and Indian.
More films are now produced in Bombay than in Hollywood. India has a long-established and highly successful commercial film industry. Its films are lavishly produced, with elaborate sets and spectacular song and dance routines. Its stars have become national heroes. But now the commercial cinema is facing a challenge from independent film-makers who reject the fantasy world portrayed in the Bombay extravaganzas, and tackle important social issues such as famine and poverty.
NOTES
Bharat. Hindi name of the Republic of India. Hindustan [,hindu'sta:n]. 1) Persian name of India, especially the part N. of the Deccan; 2) the predominantly Hindu areas of India, as contrasted with the predominantly Muslim areas of Pakistan.
Hindustan. 1) A standard language and lingua franca of northern India based on a dialect of Western Hindi spoken around Delhi. Abbr.: Hind; 2) of or pertaining to Hindustan, its people, or their languages.
Himalaya Mountains. Mountain system in S.-central Asia, extending from the meeting of the borders of Sinkiang, Afghanistan, and Kashmir along the N. frontier to India, through Nepal, Bhutan, and S. Tibet; contains the highest mountains in the world. Highest elevation Mount Everest (29,028 ft). It is connected with the Pamirs on the NW., the Hindu Kush on the W., and the plateau of Tibet on the N., and contains the sources of the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra rivers.
Deccan Plateau, the ['dekan]. A plateau region in S. India between the Narbada and Krishna rivers.
Deccan (also: Dekkan). Non-official designation for the peninsular portion of India lying S. of the Narbada River, between the Bay of Bengal on the E. and the Arabian Sea on the W.
Nanda Devi. A mountain in N. India, in Uttar Pradesh; a peak of the Himalayas (25,661 ft.). Cape Comorin . A cape on the S. tip of India, extending into the Indian Ocean.
Thar Desert. A desert in NW. India and SW. Pakistan, ab. 100,000 sq. mi. (also: "Indian Desert", "Great Indian Desert").
Ganges. Sacred and greatest river of India. It rises in the Himalayas, near the Tibetan border. In its upper course it flows through gorges and mountain valleys, emerging onto its extensive plain at Hardwar. It flows SE. across the largest and most densely populated plain of India, finally emerging upon its great delta at the Bay of Bengal. The length of the main stream is 1,557 mi. It is no longer navigable because of the large amounts of water taken out for irrigation. On it are situated Calcutta, Patna, and many holy places, such as Benares, Allahabad, Hardwar, and Gangotri.
Brahmaputra. A river in S. Asia, flowing from SW. Tibet through NE. India and joining the Ganges River.
Godavari. A river flowing SE. from W. India to the Bay of Bengal, 900 mi. long. Its valley in Assam is second only to Ceylon as one of the world's largest tea-producing areas. The waters rise some 30—40 ft. during the rainy season, and flood the adjoining fields, making irrigation unnecessary. Length, ab. 1,800 mi., navigable to Dibrugarh, in NE. Assam, ab. 800 mi. Krishna, the (also: Kistna River). River of the Deccan, S. India, flowing E. and forming part of the boundary between Hyderabad and Madras, and emptying through a delta into the Bay of Bengal. The delta region is irrigated from the river. Length ab. 800 mi.
Jumna. A river in N. India, flowing SE. from the Himalayas to the Ganges at Allahabad, 860 mi. long.
Ajanta. A village in central Maharashtra, in S.-central India; caves and shrines containing Buddhist frescoes and sculptures.
Agra. A city on the Jumna River in Uttar Pradesh State; the site of the Taj Mahal.
Taj Mahal. A white marble mausoleum built by the Mogul emperor Shah Jahan (1628—1658) for his favourite wife.
Bikaner. A city in the Thar Desert in the northwest and celebrated for its woollen goods. Darjeeling. 1) a district capital and resort city in northern-west Bengal, 305 mi. north of Calcutta in the Himalayan foothills; 2) a fine variety of black tea from Darjeeling (also: Darjeeling tea).
Dehra Dun. A city of northern Uttar Pradesh, site of India's Armed Forces Academy.
Farrukhabad. A city in central Uttar Pradesh, a Buddhist pilgrimage centre.
Golconda. A ruined city of western Andhra Pradesh, the capital (1512—1687) of a former Moslem Kingdom.
Pondicherry . A city on the Bay of Bengal, ab. 90 mi. southwest of Madras, that was until 1954 the chief French settlement in India. Varanasi. A city in southeastern Uttar Pradesh on the Ganges; a sacred city of the Hindus.
Sanskrit. 1) Indo-European, Indie language, in use since 1200 B.C. as the most important religious and literacy language of India; 2) (also: Sanskritic, Sanscritic, Sanscrit) of or pertaining to Sanskrit.
Asoka. Buddhist king in India (269?—232? B.C.).
Mogul. 1) one of the Mongol conquerors of India who established an empire that lasted from 1526 to 1857, but held only nominal power after 1803; 2) • important, powerful, or influential person: a mogul of the movie industry.
sepoy (formerly in India). A native soldier, usually an infantryman, in the service of Europeans, especially of the British.
Sikh [si:k]. A member of a Hindu religious sect, founded in the Punjab c. 1500 by the guru Nanak as a reformed offshoot of Hinduism, refusing to recognize the caste system of the supremacy of the Brahminical priests and forbidding magic, idolatry, and pilgrimages.