Английский / Англ.яз.Практикум 1 курса

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The great Galileo is considered the father of the science of materials strength, one of the basic engineering disciplines. But before it could produce mechanisms сараble of withstanding cosmic cold and vacuum, the strains and stresses of take off and return to the Earth, the science of materials strength had to cover a long and difficult path. It's progress accelerated markedly in the 19th century, when реорle began to lay thousands of miles of railway tracks, erect bridges and dig tunnels, built ocean-going ships and complex machines, dig into the earth in search of minerals. In most cases our predecessors managed to соре with their tasks. Маnу structures they built centuries ago have not only survived to our day, but remain in use. Of course, there were also errors and tragedies when buildings fell in, machines broke down or bridges collapsed. At оnе time it even bесаmе а matter of professional ethics fог the designer to stand under the bridge during the first trail run of heavyloaded wagons. Yet more often the cause of mishaps was not any lack of knowledge on the part of ехреrts. The ргоblеms of strength of materials are bidden deep in the mysteries of atomic and molecular structure.

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In 1905 Albert Einstein developed Ms mass-energy equation, E = mc2, as part of Ms Theory of relativity. This equation states that with a given mass (m) is associated an amount of energy (E) equal to this mass multiplied by the square of the velocity of light (c). A very small amount of mass is equivalent to a vast amount of energy. Because more than 99 per cent of the atom's mass is in the nucleus, any release of large amounts of the atom's energy comes from the nucleus. Two nuclear processes which have great practical importance because they provide great amounts of energy are fission and fusion. Fission is splitting of a heavy nucleus into lighter ones, and thermonuclear fusion is fusion of two light nuclei (at extremely high temperatures) to form a heavier one. In 1939 the German scientists split uranium nuclei by bombarding them with neutrons. Neutrons are also released by the reaction and can cause a chain reaction with other nuclei.

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UNIT 3

I. Выберите соответствующий модальный глагол и переведите следующие предложения

Образец выполнения

Students must take exams in January. Студенты должны сдавать эк-

замены в январе.

1.The service life of machine parts (not, must, can) be increased by strengthening treatment.

2.Students (may, must) come to the University in time.

3.Metals (can, must) be easily fabricated into various forms by a variety of techniques.

4.You (can, must) do without food for weeks and without water for days.

5.An electric car (can, must) develop a speed of 50 miles per hour.

6.One (must, can) see that there is no principal difference between iron and copper as conductors.

7.(May, must) I take your pen? I have broken mine.

8.– I want to see Mr. Brown. – I am afraid he (not, can, may) be in.

9.While driving a car one (should, can) be very attentive.

10.The engineer (may, should) apply his theoretical knowledge to practice.

11.Everybody (can, must) be present at the lecture of Prof. Smirnov.

12.One (must, may) study a lot to become an engineer.

II. Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на условные придаточные предложения

Образец выполнения

If I come earlier, I’ll have time to read. Если я приду пораньше, у меня будет время почитать.

1.If I get a good dictionary, I shall translate this text.

2.If you go to the Lenin Library, you will find there all the books you

need.

3.If we receive the documents tomorrow, we shall start loading the lorries on Monday.

4.If you help, I shall repair the engine in an hour.

5.If the student observes the rules, he will not make mistakes.

6.If I know the time of his arrival I shall meet him at the station.

7.If they change some details they will be able to improve the design.

8.If life existed on Venus we should know this.

9.If you press the button, the device will start working.

10.If I saw him tomorrow, I should tell him about the meeting.

11.If you go there by plane you will come in time for the conference.

12.If the builders do not work hard the canal will not be opened in time.

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III. Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык

1.The material of which this instrument is made is a new one.

2.The discovery of Newton's mistake, we will read about, was made by a young physicist.

3.Experiment proved mat electricity could travel instantly over a long piece of wire.

4.Your experiment won't give good results until you change the speed of the reaction.

5.We hope you will overcome the difficulties you are confronted with.

6.The next big change will be when we get computers that will understand human language.

7.This is an article that deals with some environmental problems we face.

8.The decimal system that was developed by French scientists was introduced in Russia by D.I. Mendeleyev.

9.No accidents will happen provided you observe the traffic rules strictly.

10.It is difficult to imagine the world we live in without radio, television and telephone.

11.Morse invented a code that used dots and dashes for letters of the al-

phabet.

12.Scientists wanted to find out if electricity could be used for longdistance communication.

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Ferrous metals and steels

Ferrous metals consist of iron combined with carbon, silicon and other elements. But carbon is the most important element in ferrous alloys. Ferrous metals are used in industry in two forms: steel and cast iron, which differ in the quantity of carbon content. Alloys consist of a simple metal combined with some other element. Steel is a ferrous material having some carbon content. There are two kinds of steel: carbon steel and alloy steels. Carbon steel should contain only iron and carbon without any other alloying element. Alloy steels are those in which in addition to carbon an alloying element is present. These alloying elements have an effect on the properties of steel. They increase its strength and hardness, for example, high percentage of chromium makes steel rust-resistant, and we call it «stainless steel».

Strength, ductility and machinability are the most important industrial and commercial properties of steel. Such properties as resistance to wear, electrical conductivity, magnetic properties are important in special uses of metals. According to their chemical and mechanical properties steels may be used in different branches of industry, for example, in machinebuilding, rocket engineering, automobile industry, etc.

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1.What elements do ferrous metals consist of?

2.What is carbon steel?

3.What are alloy steels?

4.What are the most important properties of steel?

5.In what branches of industry are steels used?

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Non-ferrous metals

Non-ferrous metals are more expensive than ferrous metals and are used only when some characteristic not possessed by iron or steel is essential or desirable in application. These characteristics are: high electrical and thermal conductivity, high corrosion resistance, non-magnetic qualities, light weight, etc. The metals most frequently used to make non-ferrous metal castings are copper, tin, zinc, lead, nickel, gold and aluminum. Some of the basic non-ferrous metals and their characteristics are described below. Copper is a reddish-brown, tough metal. It has very high electric conductivity and high corrosion-resistant qualities. Copper is used for making electrical contacts and wires, pipes, telephone cables, tanks, water heaters, etc. Zinc is a hard, brittle, bluish-white metal that is employed in the pure form as sheet zinc. Lead is a very heavy bluish-grey metal, which is very soft. This metal is highly resistant to corrosion, but its strength is so low that it must be supported by a core of some other metal. Lead is used for lining pipes, acid tanks and coating electrical cables. Aluminum is a soft, silvery white metal. It is light in weight, has high corrosion-resistant qualities and is used for automobile and airplane parts as well as for making different lightweight objects used in everyday life such as: frames, cooking utensils, chairs, etc. Tin is a silvery, corrosion-resistant metal. Tin is hardly used in pure form, but is employed as an alloying element. Nickel is a hard, tough, silvery metal. It has high corrosion-resistant qualities and is used for plating other metals such as iron or brass. There are many applications of non-ferrous metals in the unalloyed state, but in most cases, some alloying element is added.

1.What are the main characteristics of non-ferrous metals?

2.What are the properties of copper and what is it used for?

3.What do you know about lead?

4.What purposes is aluminum used for?

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Metals and nonmetals

There are some distinctions between metals and nonmetals. Metals are distinguished from nonmetals by their high conductivity for heat and electricity, by metallic lustre and by their resistance to electric current. Their use in industry is explained not only by those properties, but also by the fact that their properties, such as strength and hardness, can be greatly improved by alloying them with other metals. There are several important groups of metals and alloys. The common metals such as iron, copper, zinc, etc, are produced in great quantities. The so-called precious metals include silver, gold, platinum and palladium. The light metals are aluminium, berillium and titanium. They are important in aircraft and rocket construction. Many elements are classified as semimetals (bismuth, for example) because they have much poorer conductivity than common metals. Nonmetals (carbon, silicon, sulphur) in the solid state are usually brittle materials without metallic lustre and are usually poor conductors of electricity. Nonmetals show greater variety of chemical properties than common metals do. Metals can undergo corrosion, changing in this case their chemical and electromechanical properties. In order to protect metals from corrosion the products made of metals and steel are coated by some films (coatings). Organic coatings protect metals and steel from corrosion by forming a corrosion-resistant barrier between metal or steel and the corrosive environment.

1.By what properties are metals distinguished from nonmetals?

2.What common metals are produced in great quantities?

3.What metals are called light?

4.What properties do nonmetals have?

5.What is done to protect metals from corrosion?

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Electronics and technical progress

Large-scale application of electronic technique is a trend of technical progress capable of revolutionizing many branches of industry. Electronics as a science studies the properties of electrons, the laws of their motion, the laws of the transformation of various kinds of energy through the media of electrons. In 1918 a radio laboratory was established in Nizhny Novgorod. It carried out very important work on radio broadcasting and long-range communication. Electronics and radio electronics have developed from this radio laboratory in Nizhny Novgorod into hundreds of research institutes, design offices and laboratories employing tens of thousands of people. At present it is difficult to enumerate all branches of science and technology which are based on electronic technique. Without radio electronics we would not have cybernetics, cosmonautics and nuclear physics. It is no mistake, therefore, to compare the birth of electronics to

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such great achievements of mankind as the discovery of fire, the use of the wheel, and the penetration into the secrets of the atom. Electronics makes it possible to raise industrial automation to a higher level, to prepare conditions for the future technical equipping of the national economy. It is expected to revolutionize the system of control over mechanism and production processes. The use of electronic and cybernetic machines led to radical changes in the management of big economic organizations, large plants, and so on. Electronics greatly helps to conduct fundamental research in nuclear physics, in the study of the nature of matter, and in the realization of controlled thermonuclear reactions. It was suggested that electronic telescopes should be used by astronomers to penetrate far into the unknown regions of the universe. An ever greater role is being played by electronics in the development of the chemical industry. Electronics includes many independent branches. The main among them are vacuum, semiconductor, molecular and quantum electronics.

1.What electronic telescopes should be used for?

2.What are the main independent branches of electronics?

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Lazers help science and industry

Spectral analysis in our time is one of the most effective methods for determining the chemical composition of substances, the method which science and industry are demanding more and more. They need more accurate and faster methods of analysis of the rapid technological processes taking place in conditions inaccessible to man. Physicists have developed a method for using optical quantum generator for spectral analysis. The research done by scientists has shown that using the new method it is possible to increase considerably accuracy and speed of analysis and even to make it automatic. With quantum generators it will be possible to carry out analysis of substances in unusual conditions, in particular in vessels, where there is either an extremely rarefied atmosphere, or high pressure.

It seems that it will be possible to carry out analysis inside industrial apparatus, in particular, in smelting furnaces during the smelting of metals. The method developed will make the control of technological processes more rapid than ever.

Lasers have found more interesting application in science. On the basis of radio-frequency quantum generator clocks have been made measuring time with an accuracy of one second per 300 years. Modern scientific achievements make possible the manufacture of clocks which measure time with an even higher accuracy – of one second per tens of thousands of years. They are the atomic clocks. Atomic clocks measure time by the ceaseless vibrations within molecules and atoms. When atoms or molecules are excited by electrical energy, they emit electromagnetic waves such as light or radio waves. By counting the num-

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ber of waves in a certain period, a very accurate measure of time can be defined. These super-precise generators are not only of «academic interest», many theories being proved with their help. They can also be applied in space and sea navigation. Without such generators spaceships, for example, cannot be piloted accurately to other planets.

1.Why is spectral analysis one of the most effective methods used in science and industry?

2.What has the research done by scientists shown?

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Uses of electricity

Electricity is the power that has made possible the engineering progress of today. Wherever we look around us we can find this power serving us in some way. When we use a switch and have our room instantly flooded with light, we seldom think of what is happening to make it possible. Probably the most important use of electricity in the modern home is producing light. Do you know that the first ever man-made electric light illuminated the laboratory of the St. Petersburg physicist Vasily Petrov in 1802? He had discovered the electric arc, a form of the gas discharge. But in Petrov’s experiments the arc flame lasted for only a short time.

In 1876 Pavel Yablochkov invented an arc that burned like a candle for a long time and it was called «Yablochkov’s candle». The source of light invented by Yablochkov won world-wide recognition. But while he and several other inventors were improving the arc light, some engineers were working along entirely different lines. They sought to develop an incandescent lamp. It was a young Russian engineer, Alexander Lodygin, who made the first successful incandescent lamp. The famous American inventor Thomas Edison improved the lamp having used a carbon filament. But it was again Lodygin who made another important improvement in the incandescent lamp, having invented a lamp with a tungsten filament, the lamp we use today. Another electric light we use today is the light of the luminescent lamp – a «cold» daylight lamp. Artificial daylight lamps are much cheaper than incandescent lamps and last much longer. This is the lighting of the future. The uses of electricity in the home do not end with lighting. There are more and more electric devices helping us in our home work. But we should not forget that electricity is the most important source of energy in industry as well. A worker in a modern manufacturing plant uses on the average in the machines which he operates over 10.000 kilowatt-hours of electrical energy a year.

1.What is the most important use of electricity in the modern home?

2.How much electrical energy does a worker in a modern manufacturing plant use a year?

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UNIT 4

ТЭАЗ, ПДМЗ Найдите в правой колонке русские эквиваленты английских

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Components of the automobile

1.Basically, the automobile consists of three parts: the power plant, or the engine, the chassis and the body. To these may be added the accessories: the heater, lights, radio, speedometer and other devices,

2.The power plant, or engine is the source of power that makes the wheels rotate and the car move. It includes electric, fuel, cooling and lubricating systems. Most automobile engines have six or eight cylinders.

3.The chassis consists of a power train, frame with axles, wheels and springs. The chassis includes brakes and steering system.

4.The power train carries the power from the engine to the car wheels and contains the clutch, gearbox, propeller or cardan shaft, differential and the final drive.

5.The clutch is a friction device connecting (or disconnecting) the engine crankshaft to the gears in the gearbox. It is used for freeing the gearbox from the engine and is controlled by the clutch pedal.

6.Brakes are important mechanisms of the car. They are used to slow or stop the car. Most braking systems in use today are hydraulic. They are operated by the brake pedal. When the driver pushes down on the brake pedal, they are applied and the car stops.

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The engine

1.The engine is the source of power that makes the car move. It is usually called an internal combustion engine because gasoline is burned within its cylinders or combustion chambers. Most automobile engines have six or eight cylinders.

2.The operating cycle of the four-stroke engine that takes place in the engine cylinder can be divided into four strokes. The upper limit of the piston movement is called the top dead centre. The lower limit of piston movement is called the bottom dead centre. A stroke is the piston movement from the top dead centre to the bottom dead centre, or from the bottom dead centre to the top dead centre. In other words, the piston completes a stroke each time it changes the direction of its motion.

3.Where the entire cycle of events in the cylinder requires four strokes (two crankshaft revolutions), the engine is called a four-stroke cycle engine. The four strokes are: intake, compression, power and exhaust.

4.Two-cycle engines have also been made, and in such engines the entire cycle of events is completed in two strokes or one revolution of the crankshaft.

5.On the intake stroke the intake valve is opened. The mixture of air and vaporized gasoline is delivered into the cylinder through the inlet valve.

On the compression stroke the inlet valve is closed so that the mixture can be compressed.

On the power stroke both valves (inlet and exhaust) are closed in order to rise pressure during the mixture combustion.

On the exhaust stroke the exhaust valve is opened to exhaust the residual gas.

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Вопросы

1.What is the top dead centre?

2.What is the bottom dead centre?

3.When is the engine called a four-stroke cycle engine?

4.When is the engine called a two-cycle engine?

5.What are the main basic parts of the automobile?

Ответы

a.When the entire cycle of events is completed in two strokes.

b.The lower limit of the piston movement.

с. A power train, frame with axles, wheels and springs.

d.The upper limit of the piston movement.

e.When the entire cycle of events in the cylinder is completed in four

strokes.

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ПГСЗ Найдите в правой колонке русские эквиваленты английских

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Portland cement

Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general usage, as it is a basic ingredient of concrete and mortar. It consists of a mixture of oxides of calcium, silicon and aluminum. Portland cement and similar materials are made by heating limestone (as source of calcium) with clay or sand (as source of silicon) and grinding the product. The resulting powder, when mixed with water, will become a hydrated solid over time.

Manufacture of Portland cement requires the burning of large quantities of fuel, typically coal or natural gas, which along with impurities contained in the limestone can result in significant emissions of pollutants regulated in many countries, including greenhouse gases such as nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, and carbon monoxide. Cement plants are known to emit substantial quantities of arsenic, lead and mercury.

Portland cement was first manufactured in Britain in the early part of the 19th century, and its name is derived from its similarity to Portland Stone, a type of building stone that was quarried on the Isle of Portland in Dorset, England. The patent for Portland cement was issued to Joseph Aspdin, a British bricklayer, in 1824.

Concrete

Concrete is a composite building material made from the combination of aggregate (composite) and a binder such as cement The most common form of concrete is Portland cement concrete, which consists of mineral aggregate (generally gravel and sand), Portland cement and water. It is commonly believed that concrete dries after mixing and placement. Actually, concrete does not solidify because water evaporates, but it is cement that hydrates, gluing the other com-