lexicology / 26-27
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com-, dis-, ex-. ob-J shows that the words are of Latin origin, e.g. abnormal, compare, expurgate, obstruct
In the 15,h century English scholars introduced many silent letters in Latin words borrowed through French proceeding from the idea that the spelling of a word should reflect its origin. The English word debt originates from the Latin word debitum but in French it lost the letter b' which was introduced by the English scholars. In the word doubt the letter 'b' was also introduced. In the words heir and honour the letter 'h' was introduced, m receipt *p\ in island -*s\ and in scissors — 'c' So the presence of silent letters in the word indicates its Latin origin.
Some of these late Latin borrowings were partially assimilated grammatically. They have preserved their original plural inflexion.
e.g. phenomenon - phenomena, alumnus - alumni, bacterium -bacteria
Other borrowings of this period have two plural forms - the native and Latin.
e.g. antenna antennae/antennas; aquarium - aquaria/aquariums,
crematorium crematoria/crematoriums
Some Latin borrowings were not assimilated and function as barbarisms.
e.g. alma mater - a school or university from which one has graduated
alter ego - a second self/a trusted friend
terra incognita - unknown territory The latest stratum of loans from Latin began in the 16th century and continues up till now. The borrowings of this period include abstract and scientific words.
Whenever there is a need to coin a new word Latin or Greek elements arc combined.
Latin borrowings considerably enriched the English vocabulary and brought about some changes in English synonymic groups, in the distribution of the English vocabulary through spheres of application.
There are a lot of Latin borrowings which have their synonymic native word, but the sphere of their application is different Such pairs of words are called stylistic synonyms. Native words are usually stylistically neutral and Latin loans arc bookish.
e.g. fatherly - paternal, brotherly - fraternal, bodily - corporal, begin initiate, rise - ascend.
d) Scandinavian Borrowings
The Scandinavian (Danish) invasion of England began in the 8,h century when the Danes occupied the northern regions. In 878 the English King Alfred the Great, by the Treaty of Wedmore, was obliged to recognize Danish rule over a territory covering two-thirds of modern England. In 1017 the whole of England was conquered and the Danes reigned over it up to 1042.
The effect of the Danish conquest was a contribution of many Scandinavian words to the English vocabulary.
As both languages were Germanic the two peoples could understand each other. Most of Scandinavian loans arc everyday words such as:
nouns: crop, cake, egg, law, sky, skirt, window
adjectives. ///, low, meek, old, wrong, loose, ugly
verbs: call. die. drown, guess, give, take, scream, want
It is supposed that the Scandinavian element in MnE amounts to 650 words, most of which came into English orally. The similarity between English and Scandinavian words was so great that many of them differed from one another only in endings.
Besides lexical borrowings there are some grammatical elements. Pronouns they, them. both, same and the preposition till belong here.
In distinguishing Scandinavian borrowings we may sometimes apply the criterion of sound, such as [sk] sound in Scandinavian words (e.g. skull, bask, scare, scream) regularly changed to [S] in native English words (e.g. shape, share, shout, shriek).
e) French Borrowings
The French language has influenced English vocabulary greatly. French words have penetrated into the English vocabulary at different time and due to various circumstances.
Most lexicologists distinguish two periods of French influence, according to which all French loans may be divided into two groups:
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early loans (borrowed before 1250),
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later loans (borrowed after this date).
The battle of Hastings fought on the 14* of October 1066 resulted in the defeat of the Anglo-Saxon Army and the victory of the Normans. The immediate result of the Conquest was that all the important places in the government, at court and in the church were filled by French-speaking Normans.
The new conditions brought about by the Norman Conquest opened the door for an abundant influx of French words. For nearly 150 years the