lexicology / 24-25

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wine and foodstuffs.

e.g. pound (Lat. pondo), wine (Lat. vinum), inch, ounce (Lat. uncia), sack (Lat. asccus), candle (Lat. candela), cheese (Lat. caseus)

Quite a number of words borrowed from Latin denote different containers.

e.g. cup (Lat. cuppa), dish (Lat. discus), kettle (Ixit. catellus)

The names of fruit-trees, plants, agricultural terms were also borrowed from Latin (total 136 words).

e.g. mint (Lat mint), pea (Lat. pisum), pine (Lat. pinus), pepper (Lat. pipere), poppy(Lat. papaver), radish (Lat. radicem)

These oral loan words, which were adopted in the early period of the history of English, underwent changes in the act of adoption. Most of them were fully assimilated, functioning according to the laws of English, and without an etymological dictionary it is difficult to trace their origin.

The second great stratum of Latin borrowings came into English in the 6*^h-7^Ib centuries when the people of England were converted to Christianity.

Latin borrowings of this period may be divided into two groups, which arc different in character.

To the first group belong early borrowings, which refer to different spheres of life.

Here we find words denoting things of everyday use.

e.g. cap (Lat. cappa), chest (Lat. cista), mat (lat. matta)

We also find here names of many vegetables and plants introduced into culinary and medical practice by Roman monks.

e.g. beet (Lat. bete), lily (Lat. lilum). parsley (Lat. petrocelium), cucumber (Lat. cucumer)

Names of animals:

e.g. camel (Lat camelus), cancer (Lat. cancer), lion (Lat. leo), lobster

(Lat. locuster), leopard (Lat. pardus)

To the first group also belong borrowings in the spheres of education, science and literature, music and art.

e.g. verse (Lat. versus), grammar (Lat. grammaticka), note (Lat.

notare), term (Lat. terminus), fiddle (Lat, vitula)

The second group of Latin borrowings includes mainly religious terms.

e.g. abbot (Lat. abbadem). altar (Lat. altare). apostle (Lat.

apostolus), cross (Lat crucem), martyr (Lat martyr)

The borrowings of the second group were not so frequently used as the words of the first group, as they expressed more abstract notions. A lot of words of the second group lost their religious meaning and acquired general meaning.

e.g. to offer - to sacrifice

rule - a set of rules for a monastery

Another great influx of Latin words came through French after the Norman Conquest. It is the third stratum of Latin borrowings. This period continued to the Renaissance. The loan words of this period are mainly of scientific character and were borrowed through writing. Among them there arc terms of philosophy, mathematics and physics.

e.g. diameter, fundamental momentum, radius, vacuum

We also find here words referring to law and government

e.g. alibi, affidavit, habeas corpus, veto

We also find here terms of medicine.

e.g. anesthetic, diagnosis

Many geographical or topographical terms are also of Latin origin.

e.g. equator, continental, meridian, latitude, peninsula

Also Latin abbreviations were borrowed during the third period. A great many of them usually suggest English equivalents.

For example, 'i.e.' stands for 'id est,' which means, simply, 'that is' or 'tfhich is to say.'" The abbreviation introduces a definition or a clarification.

e.g. Larry was still dressed in his work clothes, i.e.. a clown suit.

'E.g.' is an abbreviation of "exempli gratia." which means 'for example" or 'for instance.'

e.g. Larry found that his job had certain disadvantages, e.g., back problems Jrom cramming himself into tiny cars.

'Sic' is the Latin word for *thus,' and is used by writers quoting someone to alert the reader to the fact that an error or other weirdncss in the quoted material is in the original, and not an error of transcription. 'Sic' is almost always enclosed in parentheses.

A lot of adjectives were borrowed during this period.

e.g. appropriate, conspicuous, dexterous, external, hereditary

A large number of adjectives from Latin came into English, while the verbs and nouns from which they were derived did not.

e.g. man human, hear - audible, god - divine, lung - pulmonary, moon - lunar, star stellar, sun - solar

Some English nouns have only Latin adjectives.

e.g. letter - epistolary, mind - mental, mouth - oral, ox - bovine

The words of this period arc usually partially assimilated graphically and phonetically. The presence of prefixes ending in consonant (ad-, ab-,