c)When /p b, t d, k g/ are followed by the nasal sonorants /m, n/ their plosion becomes nasal: garden /d n/.

d)When /p b, t d, k g/ are followed by the lateral sonorant /l/ their plosion becomes lateral: middle /d l/, circle /k l/, good luck /d l/, uncle /k l/,

little /t l/.

Note. When /p, t, k/ are preceded by /s/ they lose their aspiration: skate /s k/, steak /s t/, space /s p/.

Word Stress

Word stress (word accent) is greater prominence given to one or more syllables in a word.

Stressed and unstressed syllables differ in quantity (length) and quality. They are longer when stressed and carry vowels of full formation. When unstressed, they undergo reduction and become shorter.

Word stress should be considered from the point of view of:

1)its place in a sentence;

2)its degree.

There are two degrees of word stress in English:

1)primary or strong (marked above the syllable);

2)secondary or weak (marked under the syllable).

The place of word stress depends on the quantity of syllables in a word.

Accented types of words

1. Monosyllabic, disyllabic and trisyllabic words are stressed on the first syllable, e. g. phoneme, palate, prefix, pronoun, family, enemy, imitate,

colony.

Note 1. In three-syllable words the stressed vowel is mostly read according to the second type of the syllable, e. g. family.

Note 2. In words with inseparable prefixes the stress falls on the syllable next to the prefix: be gin, pre pare.

2. Most four-syllable words have the stress laid on the third syllable from the end, e. g. po litical, ex periment, hi storical, ge ology.

3. Compound nouns are stressed on the first component, the second though unstressed has a vowel of full formation, e. g. blackboard / /.

Exceptions: armchair, icecream, tape-re corder.

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4. Polysyllabic words have the primary stress on the third syllable from the end and the secondary stress on the second pretonic syllable, e. g. uni versity, as simi lation, possi bility.

5.The following groups of words have two primary stresses:

-numerals (from 13 to 19): four teen;

-compound adjectives: wellknown, goodlooking;

-composite verbs: get up, sit down, put on;

-words with separable prefixes:

a)implying negation: un-, in-, il-, ir-, non-, dis-, e. g. unknown, inaccurate, irregular, non-aggressive, disbelief, illiterate;

b)prefixes implying assistance: sub-, vice-, e.g. subtitle, vice-minister;

c)prefixes with different meanings: mis- - meaning ‘wrong’ (misunderstand); over- - meaning ‘too much’ (overtired); pre- - meaning ‘before’ (pre-revolutionary); inter- - meaning ‘among’,

‘between’ (international); anti- - meaning ‘against’ (antiwar).

Note. Words listed under group 5 undergo variations in stress. In utterances they lose one stress or the other. When they are used attributively, the second stress is lost; when used predicatively, the first stress is lost:

English Intonation. Its Components.

The sentence possesses definite phonetic features. Each feature performs a definite task, and all of them work simultaneously. Thus,

a)Sentences are usually separated from each other by pauses. If necessary, the sentence is subdivided into shorter word groups according to sense; these are called sense groups, or syntagms.

b)The pitch of the voice does not stay on the same level while the sentence is pronounced; it fluctuates, rising and falling on the vowels and voiced consonants. The fluctuations of the voice pitch are called speech melody.

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c)The word that is most important for the meaning of the sentence, i. e. the word acting as its semantic centre, is made prominent by stress and a special moving tone.

d)Other words, also essential for the meaning, are stressed but the pitch of these words remains unchanged.

e)Form words, performing grammatical functions (such as articles, prepositions, auxiliary, modal and link verbs) are usually left unstressed; they are mostly pronounced in their reduced (weak) forms.

f)Connected English speech comes as a series of closely knit groups of words, each group containing only one stressed syllable. The stressed syllables occur at approximately equal intervals of time. This interrelationship of stress and time makes rhythm.

g)The rate of speech is not constant, but is made to suit the semantic weight of each sense group of the utterance.

h)The timbre of the voice changes in accordance with the emotions experienced by the speaker.

All the phonetic features of the sentence enumerated above (speech melody,

sentence stress, tempo, rhythm, pauses and timbre) form a complex unity, called intonation.

The most important components of intonation from the linguistic point of view are speech melody, sentence stress, and rhythm.

Communicative Types of Sentences

The communicative type of a sentence is a linguistic category differentiated in speech in accordance with the aim of the utterance. There are 4 types of them. They are:

1.Statements (categoric, non-categoric, implicatory).

2.Questions (special, general, alternative, disjunctive).

3.Imperatives (commands, requests).

4.Exclamations.

The Segments of Intonation Group

The intonation contour of an extended syntagm consists of three functionally important parts:

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1.The pre-head.

2.The scale, or head.

3.The terminal tone.

4.The tail.

I have been doing English at the institute.

Types of Pre-Heads

A low pre-head consists of unstressed syllables pronounced at a low pitch, or gradually ascending in pitch towards the head or the nucleus:

e.g. But you’ll be home in time for dinner?

A high pre-head consists of unstressed syllables pronounced on a high pitch. A high pre-head gives to the utterance an extremely emotional character and may be regarded as a feature of emphatic speech.

e. g. How can you be so obstinate?

The System of Scales

The Scale is a phonetic unit that begins with the head group and extends to the terminal tone.

Scales can be classified as follows:

1) According to the arrangement of unstressed syllables within stress-tone groups can be:

• Stepping

e.g. Our classes be gin at three o’ clock.

• Sliding

e.g. Our classes be gin at three o’ clock.

• Scandent

e.g. Our classes be gin at three o’ clock.

2) According to the direction of the pitch movement the scales can be classified as:

• The Descending Scale (Stepping, Sliding, Scandent) e.g. He promised to be in time.

He promised to be in time.

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He promised to be in time.

•The Ascending Scale (Stepping, Sliding, Scandent) e.g. He promised to be in time.

He promised to be in time. He promised to be in time.

• The Level Scale (Low, Mid, High)

e.g. He promised to come in time. He promised to come in time. He promised to come in time.

3) According to the regularity of their pitch movements scales can be:

•Regular

•Broken

e.g. He promised to come in ↑half an hour. He promised to come in ↑half an hour.

The function of the scale lies in the fact that it helps to convey different emotions. We can call this function attitudinal.

Scales in Detail

The Stepping Scale

1. The Regular Descending Stepping Scale is characterised by steplike descend of all stress-tone units. The head-unit of the contour takes the highest pitch. The unstressed syllables within every stress-tone unit are said on a level sequence.

The Regular Descending Stepping Scale is commonly used in descriptive prose and in monologue parts of a conversation. It can serve any communicative type of utterance. It sounds formal, businesslike, matter-of-fact.

e.g. I m a first-year student of the English de partment.

The Regular Descending Stepping Scale can be combined with any of the six terminal tones.

2. The Broken Descending Stepping Scale

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The Descending Stepping Scale can be broken on any important word (except the head one), which takes a higher pitch than the preceding stressed syllable. Then the step-like descend continues. This rise is called SPECIAL or ACCIDENTAL. It is used for several reasons:

• to avoid the monotony of a long syntagm:

e.g. I’m a first-year student of the ↑English de partment.

• to join short syntagms into longer ones:

e.g. To morrow morning we ↑ leave for Kyiv.

• to give special emphasis to an important word. There is a number of emotionally coloured words which are liable to take the Special Rise, they are: all, always, very, every, best, many, quite; all the numerals and so on.

e.g. Our classes be gin at ↑three in the after noon.

NOTE. If the Special Rise is produced during the second accented word, the preceding stressed word takes a low-level or a mid-level pitch.

e.g Our can teen is ↑always over crowded.

3. The Ascending Stepping Scale is characterised by the step-like ascend of all stress-tone units. The head-unit of the utterance takes the lowest pitch. The unstressed syllables within every stress-tone unit are said on a level sequence.

The High Level Prehead often precedes it. It can be used on any communicative type of utterance. It conveys displeasure, disgruntled protest, critical surprise.

e.g. I thought per haps you might stay up to see her. (displeasure)

¯Are you sure you don’t want to be a lawyer, John? (critical surprise)

The Sliding Scale

In the Sliding Scale every stress-tone unit is said on a sliding sequence, the accented syllables take level pitches.

e.g. He wrote a letter on Monday morning.

Note. In monosyllabic stress-tone units the pitch slides during the syllable. e.g. Mike knows better.

The Slidindg Scale is often used in conversation.

It gives additional prominence to every accented word and sounds weighty and excited. It can be used in any communicative type of utterance, and can be

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combined with any terminal tone, but the preference is given to the Low Fall, High Fall and Fall-Rise. The High Descending Prehead often precedes it.

e.g. Mike knows it better.Mike knows it better.Mike knows better.

According to its direction the Sliding Scale can be:

•The Descending Sliding Scale.

e.g. I had such an ex citing after noon.

•The Ascending Sliding Scale.

e.g. As a matter of fact I’m nearly sixty.

•The Level Sliding Scale.

e.g. I didn’t find the shoes anywhere.

According to its regularity the Sliding Scale can also be of two types:

•Regular

•Broken

e.g. Long e nough to ↑soak us to the skin.

He’s a first-year student of the ↑English de partment.

The Scandent Scale

In the Scandent Scale every stress-tone unit is said on an ascending sequence, the accented syllables taking level pitches. The high pre-head often begins it.

e.g. ¯It’s really very funny.

Note. In monosyllabic stress-tone units the pitch rises during the syllable. e.g. I hate doing nothing.

The Scandent Scale is used in colloquial speech. It sounds lively, playful, encouraging. Yet it may also convey surprise, irritation and even irony (together with the intensified stress and widened temporal range).

The Scandent Scale is used in any communicative type of utterance, giving it an emotional colouring. It can be combined with any terminal tone except for the Fall-Rise, but the preference is given to the Falling Tones. The High Level or High Ascending Pre-Heads often precede it.

e.g. There is no need to lose your temper. ¯Wher ever had it come from.

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According to its direction the Scandent Scale can be:

•Descending

•Ascending

•Level

According to its regularity the Scandent Scale can be also of two types:

•Regular

•Broken

The Level Scale

The Level Scale according to its pitch can be of three types:

•The Low Level

•The High Level

•The Mid Level

According to the arrangement of unstressed syllables within every stress-tone unit the Level Scale can also be Sliding and Scandent.

In the Low Level Scale all the stress-tone units are said on a Low Pitch-Level. The unstressed syllables take the same pitch. The Low Level Scale can be combined with any simple terminal tone, but the preference is given to the Low Fall, the Low Rise, the Low Level Tone. It can be used in any communicative type of utterance. This Scale is characteristic of colloquial speech.

The Low Level Scale combined with the Low Fall sounds uninterested, phlegmatic or sometimes cool, and reserved (supported by the intensified stress and slowed tempo).

e.g. He promised to come in time. (phlegmatic)Did he promise to come in time? (reserved)Did he promise to come? (cool)

The Low Level Scale followed by the Low Rise sounds disapproving, skeptical and sometimes perfunctory.

e.g. I can’t give per mission for that. (disapproving)Can you give per mission for that? (perfunctory)Who can give per mission for that? (disapproving)Very nice per mission! (skeptical)

The Low Level Scale followed by the Low Level tone sounds pathetic (when it is supported by the increase in stress and a slow tempo). It is used in recitation.

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In the High Level scale all the stress-tone units are said on a high pitch level, the unstressed syllables taking the same pitch. The High Level Scale can be combined with any simple terminal tone but the High Fall is most frequent. This intonation pattern is characteristic of emotional speech. It can be used in any communicative types of utterance. It sounds decisive, joyful or even irritable.

Terminal Tones

Nuclear tones that finish any syntagm according to their function can be terminal or non-terminal.

The terminal tone is variation in pitch produced during the final stress-tone unit of the terminal intonation groups.

The terminal tone is an inseparable part of any intonation contour, because its main function is to distinguish the communicative types of utterances.

According to their structure the terminal tones fall into two types:

•Consisting of the nucleus only: e.g. He is free.

•Consisting of the nucleus with the tail: e.g. He is busy.

According to the direction of the pitch change they fall into three principal groups:

•The group of falling tones:

The Low Fall / m/ (simple tone) The High Fall / m/ (simple tone) The Rise-Fall /m/ (complex tone)

•The group of rising tones:

The Low Rise / m/ (simple tone)

The High Rise / m/ (simple tone) The Fall-Rise / m/ (complex tone)

•The group of the level tones: The Low Level / m/ (simple tone) The Mid Level / m/ (simple tone)

The High Level / m/ (simple tone)

The Low Fall

The nucleus of the Low Fall starts at or a bit below the mid pitch level of the normal range and falls to the normal range and falls to the bottom, the tail syllables take the low pitch. As any falling tone it is final and chategorical in

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character. Besides, the Low Fall conveys some attitudes of its own, it sounds formal, serious, firm or calm, cool, reserved, phlegmatic, depending on the prehead and scale that precede it.

The Low Fall can be combined with any type of scale and the scale adds much to the attitudinal meaning of the pattern.

The Low Fall preceded by the Descending Stepping Scale is used in categorical statements, basic special questions, basic commands and exclamations. Descending Stepping Scale + Low Fall

•Categorical statements (businesslike, formal) e.g. My friend is a student of English.

John is Mary’s brother.Mary is writing a letter.

•Basic Special Questions (businesslike, serious) e.g. When do you get to the office?

What do you usually do in the evenings?

•Basic commands (businesslike, firm) e.g. Try to do it now.

Go and fetch some chalk.

•Basic exclamations (businesslike, formal) e.g. Many happy re turns of the day.

Thank you very much!

• In insistent general questions this pattern sounds serious and urgent. e.g. Do you really leave to morrow morning?

Low Level Scale + Low Fall (phlegmatic, detached). e.g. He leaves to morrow morning.

The Low Rise

The Low Rise consisting of the nucleus only starts at or near the bottom of the normal voice range and rises to the mid pitch level.

e.g. Yes, he was a way.

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If there is a tail to it the nuclear syllable takes the low level pitch and the tail-syllables carry the rise.

e.g. Certainly, he was busy yesterday.

The Low Rise sounds non-final, non-categorical, encouraging further conversation. Preceded by the Low Level Scale the Low Rise gives the utterance a perfunctory ring. That is why it is often called a perfunctory tone.

It can be used in all communicative types of utterances.

1.Non-categorical statements

•Descending Stepping Scale + Low Rise – encouraging further conversation

e.g. He knows it much better.John’s Mary’s brother.

• Low Level scale + Low Rise – perfunctory e.g. He knows it much better.

John’s Mary’s brother.

2.Special Questions

•Descending Stepping Scale + Low Rise –interested

e.g. What do you usually do in the evening?

• Low Level scale + Low Rise – perfunctory e.g. What do you usually do in the evening?

What if we meet to night?

3.Basic General Questions

•Descending Stepping Scale + Low Rise – really interested

e.g. Is anyone a way from the lesson?Haven’t you been at the library? Is he studying science?

•Low Level scale + Low Rise – perfunctory e.g. Is anyone a way from the lesson?

Haven’t you been at the library?

4.Imperatives

•Descending Stepping Scale + Low Rise –encouraging

e.g. I’m so up set – cheer up, don’t worry.

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Come a long, hurry up.

5.Exclamations

•Descending Stepping Scale + Low Rise –airy, encouraging

e.g. Sorry I must be off. – So long, my dear. See you later.

The Fall-Rise

The Fall-Rise is a complex tone. It consists of two elements: the falling part and the rising part. The Fall-Rise can be high (emphatic) and low (neutral), but the fall is always higher than the rise.

It is realised in speech in two allotones the use of which depends on the structure of the word that takes it.

We speak about the Fall-Rise:

•Compressed into one syllable (undivided)Yes.

•Spread over a number of syllables or words (divided).Real ly…

As a matter of fact.

The Fall-Rise is often called an implicatory tone. It may convey different attitudes, such as warning, hesitation, concern, correction, contradiction, contrast, apology. The Fall-Rise is mostly used in:

1.Implicatory statements.

2.Requests.

3.Apology.

4.Non-terminal intonation groups, often tempo rises.

It is usually preceded by the Sliding Scale, though the Stepping Scale is also possible.

Sentence Stress

Sentence stress is greater prominence given to one or more words in a sentence. In emotionally neutral speech sentence stress is more or less equally distributed among all the notional words of the sentence. The normally accented words are:

1. Nouns.

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