Proto-indo-european
Western branch
Eastern branch
Western branch
West European
Сeltic-Italic
Celtic Italic Germanic Tocharian Hellenic Anatolian
Eastern branch
Baltic-Slavonic
Arian
Baltic Slavonic Albanian Armenian Iranian Indian
The first division into an Eastern Group and a Western Group is important. The groups are marked by a number of differences in phonology, grammar, and vocabulary, which suggests that there was an early division of the Indo-Europeans into two main areas, perhaps representing migrations in different directions. One of the distinctive differences in phonology between the two groups is the treatment of the PIE palatal k, which appears as a velar [k] in the western languages, but as some kind of palatal fricative, [s] or [ ] in the Eastern languages. Thus the word for hundred is Greek he-katon, Latin centum, Tocharian känt, Old Irish cet, and Welsh cant (the c in each case representing [k]), but in Sanskrit it is satam, in Old Slavonic seto (modern Ukrainian cто). For this reason, the two groups are often referred to as the Kentum languages and the Satem languages. On the whole, the Kentum languages are in the West and the Satem languages in the East, but an apparent anomaly is Tocharian, right across in western China, which is a Kentum language. The division into Kentum and Satem languages took place around 1500 BC.
31. Tree of ie lang. Proto-indo-european
Western branch
Eastern branch
Western branch
West European
Сeltic-Italic
Celtic Italic Germanic Tocharian Hellenic Anatolian
Eastern branch
Baltic-Slavonic
Arian
Baltic Slavonic Albanian Armenian Iranian Indian
The first division into an Eastern Group and a Western Group is important. The groups are marked by a number of differences in phonology, grammar, and vocabulary, which suggests that there was an early division of the Indo-Europeans into two main areas, perhaps representing migrations in different directions. One of the distinctive differences in phonology between the two groups is the treatment of the PIE palatal k, which appears as a velar [k] in the western languages, but as some kind of palatal fricative, [s] or [ ] in the Eastern languages. Thus the word for hundred is Greek he-katon, Latin centum, Tocharian känt, Old Irish cet, and Welsh cant (the c in each case representing [k]), but in Sanskrit it is satam, in Old Slavonic seto (modern Ukrainian cто). For this reason, the two groups are often referred to as the Kentum languages and the Satem languages. On the whole, the Kentum languages are in the West and the Satem languages in the East, but an apparent anomaly is Tocharian, right across in western China, which is a Kentum language. The division into Kentum and Satem languages took place around 1500 BC.
A parent language – a language from which a later language is derived: Latin is the parent language of Italian and French.
A daughter language. In historical linguistics, a daughter language is a language descended from another language through a process of genetic descent. Examples:
* English is a daughter language of Proto-Germanic, which is a daughter language of Proto-Indo-European.
* Italian is a daughter language of (Vulgar) Latin, which is a daughter language of Proto-Indo-European.
* Hindi is a daughter language of Sanskrit (/Prakrit), which is a daughter language of Proto-Indo-European. * Arabic is a daughter language of Proto-Semitic, which is a daughter language of Proto-Afro-Asiatic.
Dialect– a form of a language spoken in a particular geographical area or by members of a particular social class or occupational group, distinguished by its vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation b) a form of a language that is considered inferior.
Genetically related languages – are the divergent continuation of the same earlier language.
In linguistics, genetic relationship is the usual term for the relationship which exists between languages that are members of the same language family.
Two languages are considered to be genetically related if one is descended from the other or if both are descended from a common ancestor. For example, Italian is descended from Latin. Italian and Latin are therefore said to be genetically related. Spanish is also descended from Latin. Therefore, Spanish and Italian are genetically related. Metaphorically, we can refer to the relation defined by a parent-child pattern of language transmission as genetic relationship of languages. The source language can be called the "ancestor language" or the "mother language", and the later languages deriving from it are called the "descendant languages" or the "daughter languages". Daughter languages are descended from the mother language. They are genetically related.
Genetically related languages have a common parent language: proto-language
systematic comparison shows if languages are descended from common parent
changes not only observed in documented history but also in language prehistory.
Closely related lang-es– are genetically related lang-es possessing a lot of features in common, such as English and Frisian or Danish and Swedish.