7.The second consonant-shifting.

I ACT. PG p, t, k > OHG ff, zz, hh (in the middle of the word, or at the end of the word after vowels) > f, z, h

E.g.: p > ff, f: Goth. skip, OE. scip, PDE ship, OHG. scif; Goth slepan, PDE sleep, OHG slafan, ModG schlafen.

f > zz, z: Goth. wato, PDE water, OHG wazzar, ModG Wasser;

k > hh, h: Goth brikan, PDE break, OHG brehhan, ModG brechen

II ACT. p, t, k > OHG pf, tz, kh (at the beginning of the word, in the middle after l, r, m. n)

p > pf: OS appul, PDE apple, OHG aphul, ModG Apfel;

t > tz: Goth taihun, OHG zehan, ModG Zehn; Goth tuggo, PDE tongue, OHG zunga, ModG Zunge;

k > kh: Goth. drigkan, PDE drink, South G trinchan.

III ACT b, d, g > OHG p, t, k (Alammanic, Bavarian)

b > p: Goth. bairan, PDE bear, South G peran, ModG gebären;

d > t: Goth dags, OE dæg, PDE day, OHG tac, ModG Tag;

g > k: Goth. gasts, PDE guest, South G kast, Mod G Gast.

NB: In all the West Germanic languages almost any consonant could be geminated (doubled) before or following j, and before other consonant as well. Thus in addition to the simple consonants we also have to reckon with the doubles pp, tt, kk. This distinction is important, as the geminates were affected quite differently by the consonant shift the singles were.

8. The ablaut in the Indo –European l-ges & Germanic l-ges.

Ablaut is an independent vowel intergange unconnected with any phonetic condition; different vowels appear in the same environment,surrounded by the same sound.

The rise of ablaut is partly connected with the movement of z stress: In PIE the accent was free, in Germanic it was retracted to the initial syllable.

• Vowel graduation did not reflect any phonetic changes but was used as a special independent device to differentiate between words & grammatical forms built from the same root.

The principal gradation series used in the IE l-ges was e/o/zero. In Germanic l-ges it was i/a/zero. Each members of such a series is called a grade (stupin).

There are 2 types of ablaut:

1. quantitative (altenation of short & long vowels).

IE e>zero, o>zero, short e> long e, short o> long o.

Gr. pater- patros(gen.)

Lat. sedo – sedi

Germ. e>zero, a > zero, short e > long e, short a > long o

OE ber – beron

2. qualitative ( the vowels differ in quality- change of front vowels into back)

IE e>o

везу-возити; нести-ноша.

Germ. i/e > a, i>u

Got. drigkan- dragk

OE þencan- þank

Merowingi – Nibelungi

3. qualitative – qualitative

IE e> o> zero.

Рус. беру- сбор-брать

Germ. i/e > a, a >long o

OHG beran – barn- giburt

OE faran – for – foron – faren

There are 5 classes of ablaut:

I: i: - ia – i – i

II: iu – au –u – u

III: i – a – u – u

IV: i – a – ē – u

V: i - a – ē – i.

Ablaut is used in strong verbs in Gothic l-ges.

I class: reisan “вставати” – rais – risum – risans

II class: kiusan “вибирати” – kaus – kusum – kusans

III class: bindan “зв”язувати”– band – bundum – bundans

IV class: stilan “красти” - stal – stēlum – stulans

V class: giban “давати” – gaf – gēbum – gibans

The vowels played an important part in the grammar of Proto-Indo-European, because of the way they alternated in related forms (as in Modern English sing, sang, sung, and this system descended to Proto-Germanic. There were several series of vowels that alternated in this way. Each member of such a series is called a grade (ступінь), and the whole phenomenon is known as gradation or ablaut. One such series in PIE, for example was ĕ, ŏ and zero. This series was used in some of the strong verbs: the e-grade appeared in the present tense, the o-grade in the past singular, and the zero-grade in the past plural and the past participle (in which the accent was originally on the ending). This is the series that was used in sing, sang, sung, though it was blurred by the vowel changes, which took place in Proto-Germanic. PIE ŏ regularly changed to PG ă, as it has been shown before.