angls

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The steering usually operates directly on the offside wheel, the track rod5 making sure that the other wheel exactly follows the movement.

Many cars are equipped with the alternative method of steering called rack and pinion4. This is very efficient, but, unless care is taken in the design, road jolts can affect the steering.

The bottom end of the steering-wheel shaft has a worm gear assembled on it so that rotation of the steering wheel causes the worm gear to rotate.

In one type of steering gear a two-tooth roller rides in the valley of the worm gear. As the worm gear rotates, the roller is moved towards one or the other end of the worm. This movement is carried through the roller shaft to the steering-lever arm or pitman arm. The lower end of the pitman arm swings towards one or the other side of the car, the side to which it swings being governed by the direction in which the steering wheel is turned.

The swing of the pitman arm is carried through the rods connected to the end of the arm. The other ends of the rods are connected to the wheel steering knuckle arms. As the tie rods are thus pushed or pulled by the movement of the pitman arm, the wheels are caused to turn in one way or the other.

While practically all steering systems use a worm gear on the lower end of the steering-wheel shaft, the device that meshes with the worm gear may be a stud, a gear sector, a half nut, a plain gear, or the roller discussed above. All, however, operate on the same principle

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ПРИМІТКИ

1.stub axle - поворотний кулак

2.upright spindle – вертикальний шпиндель

3.king-pin – поворотний шкворень

4.rack and pinion – зубчаста рейка

ЗАВДАННЯ 1

Дайте відповіді на запитання:

1)What is the function of the steering system?

2)What does the steering system consist of?

3)How does the steering system work?

4)For what purpose is the steering wheel linked to the front wheels?

5)Has the bottom end of the steering-wheel shaft a worm gear?

6)Does the lower and the pitman arm swing toward one or the other side of the car?

7)What are the other ends of the tie rods connected to?

ЗАВДАННЯ 2

Скажіть одним словом:

1)short metal rods that transmit turning motion from the tie rods to the steering stub axle;

2)mechanism at the lower end of the steering column that translates the steering wheel rotation into linear motion to turn the wheels;

3)device that is swiveled by the steering mechanism, causing the wheels to turn.

ЗАВДАННЯ 3

Перекладіть на українську мову:

steering system, stub axle, steering arm, steering box, to make sure, steering wheel, to steer in some direction, to be mounted, upright spindle, across the front of the car, off-side wheel, to cause to move, to result in, to exactly follow, to take care in the design, to affect, worm gear, pitman arm.

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TEXT B

BRAKES

Brakes are necessary to slow or to stop the car. They consist of brake drums, rigidly mounted to the wheels, inside of which are semistationary brake shoes that can be forced outward against the drums by the application of the brake pedal. Usually, there are two brake shoes. The shoes are curved to confirm to the inner diameter of the brake drum, and they are lined with a tough asbestos material that can withstand wear and high temperatures. In the mechanical type of brake, the shoes are forced out against the inner face of the drum by cables and links connected to the brake pedal.

In the hydraulic braking system the application of the brake pedal operates a piston in the master brake cylinder. Liquid from this cylinder is then forced through tubes to the wheel cylinders in the wheel braking mechanism. The pressure of the liquid causes two small pistons in the wheel cylinder to be forced outward. This outward motion pushes the two brake shoes against the brake drum. In either the mechanical or hydraulic type the effect is the same. The frictional drag of the brake shoes against the drums tends to prevent the wheels from rotating so that the car is brought to a stop.

ЗАВДАННЯ 1

Дайте відповіді на запитання:

1.What is the brake?

2.What parts does the brake consist of?

3.How many shoes are usually inside of drums?

4.What are the shoes lined with?

5.Can asbestos withstand wear and high temperature?

6.Where is the liquid forced to the wheel cylinder from?

7.How does the car stop?

ЗАВДАННЯ 2

Перекладіть на українську мову:

To consist of, brake drum, to mount, brake shoes, brake pedal, diameter, to withstand, to wear, temperature, hydraulic.

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ЗАВДАННЯ 3

Підберіть антоніми до дієслів:

To stop, to slow, inside, high, seldom, liquid, small.

ЗАВДАННЯ 4

Зробіть переказ тексту "Brakes" англійською мовою.

TEXT C

TIRES

Tires are of the pneumatic (air-filled) type, and they function to transmit the driving power of the wheels to the road through frictional contact. They also absorb a considerable part of the road shock resulting from small bumps and holes and prevent these shocks from being carried to the frame and body of the car. As the tires roll over small bumps, they flex, the outer surface or tread moving inward against the cushion of air inside the tires. The tire consists of two parts, the inner tube, which contains the air, and the outer casing, which takes the wear and tear of travelling over the road.

The casing has an outside coating of rubber of varying degrees of thickness that is baked or

vulcanized onto an inner structure of fabric or cord. The fabric or cord provides a flexible but tough tire structure, which the outside coating of rubber is designed to withstand the wear of road friction. The rubber tread of the tire that makes contact with the road is fairly thick and is supplied in a number of different patterns. These various patterns provide good frictional contact with the road, particularly when the road is wet. The inner tube is made of rubber and is the heart of the tire since it retains the air pressure. When air is pumped into the tube, it expands outward against the inner surface of the casing. The air is introduced through a valve. The valve is spring loaded, so that when air pressure is applied from the outside, the valve unseats and allows air to flow into the tube. As soon as the external pressure is removed, the spring again seats the valve, closing it tightly to maintain the internal air pressure in the tube.

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ЗАВДАННЯ 1

Дайте відповіді на запитання:

1. What do tires serve for?

2.What is the additional purpose of tires?

3.What structure do the fabric or cord provide?

4.What do patterns provide?

5.What is the inner tube made of?

ЗАВДАННЯ 2

Зробіть переказ тексту англійською мовою, використовуючи слідуючі словосполучення:

To transmit, to absorb, to present, frame, to roll over, to consist of, coating of rubber, outside coating, to pump air, external pressure, to maintain.

TEXT 1

THE EARLY DAYS OF THE AUTOMOBILE

( to be read after unit II )

1.One of the earliest attempts to propel a vehicle by mechanical power was suggested by Isaac Newton. But the first self-propelled vehicle was constructed by the French military engineer Cugnot in 1763. He built a steam-driven engine which had three wheels, carried two passengers and ran at maximum speed of four miles. The carriage was a great achievement but it was far from perfect and extremely inefficient. The supply of steam lasted only 15 minutes and the carriage had to stop every 100 yards to make more steam.

2.In 1825 a steam engine was built in Great Britain. The vehicle carried 18 passengers and covered 8 miles in 45 minutes. However, the progress of motor cars met with great opposition in Great Britain. Fur ther development of the motor car lagged because of the restrictions resulting from legislative acts. The most famous of these acts was the Red Flag Act of 1865, according to which the speed of the steam-driven vehicles was limited to 4 miles per hour and a man with a red flag had to walk in front of it. Motoring really started in the country after the abolition of this act.

3.In Russia there were cities where motor cars were outlawed altogether.

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When the editor of the local newspaper in the city of Uralsk bought a car, the governor issued these instructions to the police: "When the vehicle appears in the streets, it is to be stopped and escorted to the police station, where its driver is to be prosecuted."

4. From 1860 to 1900 was a period of the application of gasoline engines to motor cars in many countries. The first to perfect gasoline engine was N. Otto who introduced the four-stroke cycle of operation. By that time motor cars got a standard shape and appearance.

In 1896 a procession of motor cars took place from London to Brighton to show how reliable the new vehicles were. In fact, many of the cars broke for the transmissions were still unreliable and constantly gave trouble.

The cars of that time were very small, two-seated cars with no roof, driven by an engine placed under the seat. Motorists had to carry large cans of fuel and separate spare tires, for there were no repair or filling stations to serve them.

After World War I it became possible to achieve greater reliability of motor cars, brakes became more efficient. Constant efforts were made to standardize common components. Multi-cylinder engines came into use, most commonly used are four-cylinder engines.

5. Like most other great human achievements, the motor car is not the product of any single inventor. Gradually the development of vehicles driven by internal combustion engine — cars, as they had come to be known, led to the abolition of earlier restrictions. Huge capital began to flow into the automobile industry.

6.There are about 3,000 Americans who like to collect antique cars. They have several clubs which possess great influence such as Antique Automobile Club and Veteran Motor Car Club, which specialize in rare models. The clubs practise meetings where members can exhibit their cars. Collectors can also advertise in the magazines published by their clubs. Some magazines specialise in a single type of car such as glorious Model "T". A number оf museums have exhibitions of antique automobile models whose glory rings in automobile history. But practically the best collection— 100 old cars of great rarity — is in possession of William Harrah. He is very influential in his field. The value of his collection is not only historical but also practical: photographs of his cars are used for films and advertisements.

7.In England there is the famous "Beaulieu Motor Museum" — the home for veteran cars.

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The founder of the Museum is Lord Montague, the son of one of England's motoring pioneers, who opened it in 1952 in memory of his father. Lord Montague's father was the first person in England to be fined by the police for speeding. He was fined 5 pounds for going faster than 12 miles per hour!

In the Museum's collection there is a car called the Silver Ghost which people from near and far go to see. It was built by Rolls-Royce in 1907, and called the Silver Ghost because it ran so silently and was painted silver. There is a car called The Knight. It is the first British petrol-driven car. Its top speed was only 8 m.p.h.!

In the Museum there is also a two-seater car, built in 1903.

TEXT 2

THE MEN BEHINDTHECARS

( to be read after unit III )

The years of the vintage car were the years in which many great designers and manufacturers came to prominence. In some cases the firms they founded and the cars that evolved are still with us today; the ideas which these men of vision brought forth were the foundation of the prolific motor age which was to follow.

GIOVANNI AGNELU

The Agnellis, for instance, are a family which controls a motor manufacturing empire vitally important to the prosperity of Italy. Giovanni Agnelli was a 33-year-old cavalry officer with a penchant for engineering when he joined a group of prominent citizens of Turin to found Fabbrica Italiana Automobile Torino which soon became F.I.A.T., and then Fiat.

In the pioneer days, Agnelli's giant racers won fame for Italy and orders for the factory. A variety of cars followed, ranging from the luxurious and the sporting to the tiny economy cars. And as Fiat grew into one of Italy's major industrial organizations, the company swallowed up Lancia and Ferrari, both companies which had been set up by well-known racing drivers. Fiat were among the pioneers of industrial welfare and are still noted today for the care they take of their employees. The firm has always been headed by an Agnelli, with Edoardo following his father, and grandson Giovanni now in control.

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WALTER OWEN BENTLEY

Walter Owen Bentley, generally known as WO, was a railway apprentice who, after achieving success as a motorcycle trials rider, went into business as concessionaire for three French car manufacturers and began racing and record-breaking. During World War I Bentley served in the Royal Naval Air Service and, when he was given scope to develop his talents, he designed the Bentley rotary aero-engine.

After the war WO formed the Bentley Car Company which, with a string of victories in the classic 24-hour race at Le Mans, upheld the prestige of British motor racing in the twenties and thirties. The Bentley Car Company was eventually taken over by Rolls-Royce but the new company, Bentley Motors (1931) Ltd, continued to make quality cars for a number of years.

ETTORE BUGATTI

Another brilliant designer to achieve fame on the race circuits of the world was Ettore Bugatti. Although his cars carried the blue racing colours of France, Bugatti was born in Milan in 1881 and he remained an Italian citizen until shortly before his death.

In Milan he won eight out of the ten races he entered on a twin-engined tricycle he built himself. On the strength of this he was offered a job by De Dietrich, the motor manufacturing company, and moved to Alsace which was then in German territory. He was to spend most of his life there. From the momentfa Bugatti finished second in the 1911 French Grand Prix, the blue-painted cars went from success to success. In 1925-6, for example, Bugattis won 1,045 events; in 1927, 806 races and hill-climbs. Five times in succession Bugattis took the Targa Florio in Sicily.

Bugatti also built luxury cars; the Royale was a classic, and he designed the Baby Peugeot years before its counterpart, the Baby Austin, appeared in Britain. Bugatti had other interests including horse-riding, boating and sculpture - the famous Bugatti radiator is based on a horseshoe.

WALTER PERCY CHRYSLER

Chrysler represented the American dream: he was a farm boy from Kansas who became one of the world's outstanding industrialists. He began his working life as a railway cleaner in the workshops of the Union Pacific railroad in Ellis, Kansas, and by his mid-thirties he was plant manager of the American locomotive works, which had a car

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manufacturing subsidiary. He was recruited by the ailing General Motors Corporation in 1912, and four years later he was general manager of the Buick division. By the end of World War I, he was one of America's top 12 industrialists. Later, he revived the Maxwell firm and used it as a basis to build a car which bears his name; the first Chrysler appeared in 1924.

ANDRE CITROЁN

A brilliant engineer and businessman, a genius at public relations, Andre Citroen founded the company which bears his name and which today is in alliance with Peugeot and Talbot.

Citroen first became involved in the motor industry in 1907 when he rescued the French racing-car firm of Mors from financial disaster. During World War I he became a French national hero when he organized the manufacture of shells for the French war effort, and when the war ended he switched to the manufacture of motor cars.

Among the many remarkable achievements claimed for him are: the first modern assembly-line in Europe (1919); the first European car with an all-steel body (1924); and the first European manufacturer to use flexibly mounted engines, as devised by Chrysler in the USA (1931).

HENRY FORD

An even more important dynasty was founded by an American, Henry Ford. Son of an Irish immigrant farmer, young Henry took a dislike to farming after a fall from a horse. He built his first crude quadricycle in 1896, and followed this with a racer and won the so-called World Championship at Grosse Pointe. He then designed and built two monster machines, on one of which the legendary Barney Oldfield won the Manufacturers' Challenge Cup in 1903. As a result of this success, Ford Motors was founded. In rapid succession Ford produced Models A, B, G, F and N; nearly 10,000 of the N model were sold. Ford dreamed of a light, four-cylinder touring car of not less than 20 hp which could carry up to five people. Thus, in 1908, the Model T was launched, probably the most famous car in the history of motoring. Made without any trimmings, it sold by the million, and continued to sell,'year after year. Ford introduced the conveyor-belt assembly-line in 1913 and did not halt the production line even for a coat of paint. 'You can have any colour you like as long as it's black,' he was reported to have said.

Ford will be remembered as the man who established the eight-hour working day, guaranteed a minimum wage and brought motoring to the

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masses. Still one of the world's leading manufacturers, Ford Motors have never relinquished their connections with motor sport and their FordCosworth engine has won more Grands Prix than any other engine in history.

WILLIAM MORRIS

Typical of the early designers and manufacturers is William Morris, later Lord Nuffield, who played a similar role in Great Britain to that of Henry Ford in the United States. Forced by his father's illness to give up ideas of becoming a surgeon, William left school at 15 and with a capital of Ј4 set up as a bicycle repairer in the back room of his family's home in Oxford High Street.

He moved on to repairing cars and motorcycles, opened a garage, and built the Bullnose Morris. Cars like the MG Midget and Magnetic, the Morris Eight, the Cowley, the Oxford and others followed. In 1934 he became the first motor manufacturer to be raised to the peerage. Later, his company merged with Austin to become the British Motor Corporation, forerunner to today's British Leyland. William Morris, like Henry Ford, gave a great deal of money to charity.

Men like these, and Austin, Renault, Olds, Cord, Lanchester, Durant and Marmon built most of the great cars of the vintage period, buіlt also, alas, some of the bad ones.

TEXT 3

ELECTROMOBILE - TO BE OR NOT TO BE.

( to be read after unit IV )

There are now more than 290 million automobiles on the roads of the world, and the number is going to surpass 400 million within a decade. The tremendous number of cars makes air pollution, especially in the big cities, a real problem. This is one of the reasons why people are talking about eliminating the internal combustion engine altogether as soon as possible or at least reducing exhaust fumes.

So far, years of research have come up with little - searches for new types of engines and new fuels have not produced any basic solutions. True, using a gas fuel (propanebutane) instead of gasoline does cut the carbon dioxide content in the exhaust fumes from 10 to 25 per cent of what it was, as well as the percentage of nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons.