IV. Answer the questions:

1. What kind of product is leather?

2. Why is the tanning process used?

3. Why is leather an important material with many uses?

4. Why do we say that the leather and fur industries are distinct ones?

5. What is the most important characteristic of leather?

6. What animals are hides coming from?

7. What animals and birds are skins coming from?

8. What is the vast majority of leather sold according?

9. What is the method to determine the surface area of leather? What is the unit of measurement?

10. In what two stages is leather manufacture carried out?

V. Complete the sentences with the words from the text:

1. … is a natural product.

2. Leather is both … and uniquely comfortable.

3. Leather is made from the … of animal or bird.

4. … and skins are also used in the manufacture of glue and gelatin.

5. Leather controls the foot’ temperature, permeating out foot’s … .

VI. Find the English equivalents to the words:

характерний, вироблений відповідним чином, зберігати, перетворювати, зносостійкий, окремий, сировина, дихати, подальший, вимірювання

VII. Make up sentences with the terms:

uniquely comfortable, long-lasting and versatile material, ancient technology, distinct industries, raw materials, by-product, taxidermy, the shoe trade, the foot’s temperature, a thickness gauge

VIII. Give definitions to the words:

natural product, a skin, a hide, tanning, taxidermy, water vapour, the shoe trade, raw materials, a manufacture, a gauge

X. Translate the sentences into English:

1. Шкіра виробляється із шкур різних тварин та птиці.

2. Процес дублення перетворює шкури в міцний, різноманітний матеріал для використання в різних цілях.

3. Деревина та шкіра складали основу більшості давніх технологій виготовлення взуття.

4. Шкіряну та хутряну промисловості розрізняють за важливістю їх сировини.

5. В тексодермії також використовують шкури тварин, але тільки голови та частини спини.

6. Найважливішою характеристикою шкіри для взуттєвої промисловості є те, що вона має волокнисту структуру.

7. Шкіра дихає та контролює температуру стопи та її вологість.

8. Одиницею вимірювання шкіри є квадратний метр, квадратний дециметр та квадратний фут.

9. Деякі виробники шкіри позначають товщину у міліметрах.

10. Виробництво шкіри проходить в два етапи: підготовка та дублення шкури та обробка шкіри.

X. Speak on the topic using the following words and word-combination:

a natural product, to be protective and uniquely comfortable, tanning, to preserve skins and hides, important material with many uses, leather industry, fur industry, the raw materials are by-products, to have fibrous structure, to breath and control temperature, large animals, small or young animals, to be placed through pin-wheel or electronic measuring machines, surface area, thickness gauge, to be carried out in two stages, the process of finishing

TEXT B

I. Read and remember:

1. supple – гнучкий, піддатливий

2. to be stable – бути стійким

3. to soak – змочування

4. to be pliable – бути поступливим

5. cod oil – трісковий жир

6. binders – зв’язувальні речовини (клей, тощо)

7. shade – відтінок

8. rawhide – сиром’ятна шкура

9. brittle – крихкий, ламкий

10. neat’s-foot oil – копитний жир

II. Read the text and define the main idea:

FORMS OF LEATHER

There is a number of processes whereby the skin of an animal can be formed into a supple, strong material commonly called leather.

Vegetable-tanned leather is tanned using tannin (hence the name "tanning") and other ingredients found in vegetable matter, tree bark, and other such sources. It is supple and brown in colour, with the exact shade depending on the mix of chemicals and the colour of the skin. Vegetable-tanned leather is not stable in water; it tends to discolour, and if left to soak and then dry it will shrink and become less supple and harder. Historically, it was occasionally used as armour after hardening, and it has also been used for book binding.

Chrome-tanned leather, invented in 1858, is more supple and pliable than vegetable-tanned leather, and does not discolour or lose shape as drastically in water as vegetable-tanned. It is also known as wet-blue for its colour derived from the chromium. More esoteric colours are possible using chrome tanning.

Aldehyde-tanned leather is the leather that most tanners refer to as wet-white leather due to its pale cream or white colour. It is the main type of leather used in chrome-free leather often seen in infant's shoes and in automobiles that prefer chrome-free leather.

Synthetic-tanned leather is tanned using aromatic polymers. This leather is white in colour and was invented when vegetable tannins were in short supply, i.e. during the Second World War.

Alum-tanned leather is tanned using aluminium salts mixed with a variety of binders and protein sources, such as flour, egg yolk, etc. Very light shades of leather are possible using this process, but the resulting material is not as supple as vegetable-tanned leather.

Rawhide is made by scraping the skin thin, soaking it in lime, and then stretching it while it dries. Rawhide is stiffer and more brittle than other forms of leather, and is primarily found in uses such as drum heads where it does not need to flex significantly; it is also cut up into cords for use in lacing or stitching, or for making many varieties of dog chews.

Leather – usually vegetable-tanned leather – can be oiled to improve its water resistance. This supplements the natural oils remaining in the leather itself, which can be washed out through repeated exposure to water. Frequent oiling of leather, with mink oil, neat’s-foot oil or a similar material, keeps it supple and improves its lifespan dramatically.