Non-verbal communication 179
ofNVC of bilingual speakers (French-English in this case). They report clear interin· dividual differences between 'English VC' and 'French NVC' but they do not find different intraindividual patterns (cf. Raffier-Engel 1971, 1986). Kita (1990) analyzes gestural correlations ofverbs ofmovement in English-Japanese bilinguals. Santi & Ruiz (1998) gesrurat strategies of French-Spanish bilinguals in interviews, and Ussa & Ussa {2001) the multicultural case of U'wa bilinguals. In the light of the gestural differ ences between speakers of typological different languagec; (English, German. Japanese, Chinese, Spanish, Basque) in coverbal spatial gestures (see Muller 1994; McNeill 2000; Ibarretxe·Antui1ano 2003; Slobin 2004), inquiries into the case ofproficient bilinguals would be very interesting.
6. Applied linguistics and non-verbal communication
Applied linguisticc; is a vast area and applications of VC are multiple (cf. \IVo lfgang 1979, 1984; Feldman 1992; Hickson & Stacks 2001). The relevance ofNVC for applied linguistics is ubiquitous. Many applications are related to pathologie,c;, communicative disorders and their therapies, even in the case of psychotherapy (see vVolfgang 1984). Talking faces (see Massaro 2001), human-computer communication (Bunt et al. 1998;
Wachsmuth & Frohlich 1998; Bunt & Beun 2001 ), and integral simulations and ava· tars (Cassell et al. 2000; Gibet & Julliard 2001; Kipp 200I) can be applied to many situations. Other topics related to NYC such as punctuation, translation, and literary anthropology (to quote Poyatos) are also of evident interest for applied linguistics (see Po)'atos 1983, 1997. I998; Korte 1998).
6.1 Lexicography ofgesture
Dictionaries of gestures {especially emblems) have a long history. beginning with the monographs ofAustin (1806) and De }orio (1832). Mallery (1881) can also be consid ered a dictionary, and since then many works have de,'icribed repertoires ofgestures of many cultures and languages (see Kendon 1981, 1997; Pa)'rat6 1993). The repertoires are often accompanied by analysis ofthe samples, and we should mention studies such as Johnson et al. (1975) for American English, Calbris ( 1990) for French, Poggi & Magno Caldognetto ( 1997) for Italian.and some comparative essays (Saitz & Cervenka 1972: Lamedica 1982; see also Kendon 1981, 1997). ln other cases there are only com
pilations ofgestures linked to one language (tor instance Meo Zilio & Mejia 1980-1983, for Spanish) or ofgestures from all over the world (for instance Bauml & Bauml 1975) or a large geographical area. In these latter cases the methodological problems increase, as in Morris et al. ( 1979),a pioneeringwork on the geographical distribution ofsymbolic gestures in Europe. Methodological considerations have been followed from Hayes
In future. surely the main methodological problem that should be resolved is the establishment ofa unified basis for sharing and discussing common data, and more specifically the use of standard notation systems for the description of the items (viz. IPA in phonetics). The problen1 ofnotation is a classical one, and different solutions have been offered to represent verbal and non-verbal elements all together (c(, a.o.t Haviland 2000 and Me. eill et al. 2001, and search in Internet for the following key words ofnotation systems: Anvilt CHILDES/CLAN, CoGesT, ELA).!, EXMARaLDA, FORt\11, Observer, Transana). 1l1e need for common elicitation, descriptive and ana· lytic tools is obvtous (see for instance Creider 1986; Poggi & Caldognetto 1997; and Payrat62001 foremblems). and ifthe issue is not solved in asatisfactorywaytheposi· tive evolution of the discipline will be imperiled.
7.3Final historical comments
Sincethe publication ofthe firsthandbook (Ruesch & Kees 1956) in the middle ofthe twer)ltieth century, studies ofNYC have spread rapidly. especially since the seventies: some useful bibliographies have been compiled (Davis 1972; Key 1977; Obudho 1979• Davies & Skupien 1982) and what can be considered as the first readers have been edited (see as examples Hinde 1972• Harper et al. 1978; and \>Volfgang 1979).
Theexpansion hasbeeneven more evident since theeighties and the nineties (the list isdearly too longtobe reproduced here; see e.g., Burgoon et al. (1989);Santiet al. 1998; Messing & Campbell l999). with a progressive degree ofinstitutionalization, for instance the formationofGeVo;x, in France. Recentyears haveseennewcontributions (see Cave et al. 2001),theorganizationofseveral important conferences (Berlin 1998; Orage 1998; Porto 2000; Urbino 2000; Orage 2001; Austin 2002; Toronto 2002; Seoul 2004> Lyon 2005),5 the publication. since 2002, ofthe journal Gesture, and the consti tutio n ofthe Intematio1tal Societyfor Gesture Studies (ISGS).
At thispoint, and taking into account the pretheoreticaJ and fragmented status of NVCas adiscipline, the temptation istocompare this situation with that ofpragmatics yearsago (and indeed nowadays, though to a lesser extent}. It was then that, in the IPrA
5· Sec more information (and some papers} in http://scmioticon.com/virtuals/multimodality. htm. .Man)' recent references and very useful electronic information on NVC (papers.publication lists, journals, \'ideotapes, rcsC1U'ch centers...) can be found at http://www3.usal.es/-nonvcrbat/ (Jaume Masip. University ofSalamanca). A great deal of rclevant information about gesture (and the relation between gesture and speech and NVC in general) can be found on the wcbsitcs of three laboratories devoted to its analrsis (Chicago.Nijmegen,and Berlin):
a.McNeill LAB Centre for Gesture and Speech Research (http://mcneilltab.uchicago.edu)
b.The Nijmegen Gesture Centre (http://www.mpi.nl/rcscarch/other/lc-gesturc)
c.Berlin Gesture Cc. nter (http://www.berlingesturccenter.de/)
that of some (surely many) specialists, who feel that the scientific value of NVC as a term or concept is very limited: many practitioners would prefer to eliminate it and replace it with specific terms. However. some others (probably a minority) defend the concept. Indeed, there is no denying the term's resonance and success.
Maybe this is the start of a non·trivial dilemma for the new century. Should we abandon the term NVC and its scientific paradigm and embrace other wider paradigms (commwlication. pragmatics, social interaction, cognitive psychology. . .) and their subtopics (gesture, facial recognition, haptics, communication pathologies. . .)? Or. on the contrary. should we seek to unify a new, narrow paradigm and, in an inevitably constructivist enterprise, try to build a body of "independent': consistent knowledge? Probably the first option is the more profitable; and the next few years are likely to offer more evidence for describing the advances made, and fordaring to answer the question with more foundation than intuition.
Meanwhile, the terms nwltimodality and multimodal commrmicntion are spread· ing. They express both the positive idea and the integrative image which are lacking in the term lion-verbal commzmication, and the fact that their use is spreading does not seem to be a matter of chance (see, among others, LeVine & ScoUon 2004 and Ventola et al. 2004).
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