Вариант 10

1. Прочитайте и переведите текст:

Conventional and Unconventional Histories of the Battery

The world we live in is pretty much based on electricity, most of the products we use/consume every day being manufactured with the help of electric current or powered by it. Furthermore, most of our portable devices contain miniature power supplies, capable of producing a relatively limited amount of current following a chemical reaction, but quite enough in order to allow the respective product to work for a certain period of time. We talk about batteries, those things that no gadget-wielding person could live without, which allow us to listen to music while on the go, work on computers wherever we might be, talk on our mobile phones and much, much more. However, whenever we pick up a couple of AA's at our local grocery store, we don't really comprehend just how many years of work, research and development are behind those small, metallic products. A battery, which is actually an electric cell, is a device that produces electricity from a chemical reaction. Strictly speaking, a battery consists of two or more cells connected in series or parallel, but the term is generally used for a single cell. A cell consists of a negative electrode; an electrolyte, which conducts ions; a separator, also an ion conductor; and a positive electrode.

Many science books agree upon a conventional origin of the electrochemical battery. The Dictionary of Scientific Biography, for example, explains that Luigi Galvani discovered in 1791 that a dead frog’s muscles contracted when two dissimilar metals (brass and iron) were brought into contact with the muscle and each other. Building on that discovery, Alessandro Volta repeated Galvani’s discovery with different metals and animals. Furthermore, Volta discovered that he could reproduce this current outside of living tissue by placing the metals in certain chemical solutions. Then, in 1800, he invented the voltaic pile by stacking metal discs on top of one another and separating them with a moist conductor to produce an electrical current. This became known as the first electric battery. Ultimately, the unit of electrical potential was named the volt, after Volta. This sequence led to a straightforward and widely accepted origin of the electric battery. A discovery in the 1930s, however, has brought into question the timeline of the battery’s background, suggesting that its origins may actually be far, farolder than they had been thought to be.

German painter and archeologist König, as cited in Eggertand Dubpernell, reported that an unusual artefact was unearthed near Baghdad, Iraq, in1936 from the 2000-year-old layer of an ancient Asian culture. He described the artifact as a bright, yellow clay vase about 15 centimetres in height. A cylindrical copper pipe was held fast by asphalt and extended down into the vase. Inside the copper pipe was a completely oxidized iron rod held in place, also by asphalt. The physical and material characteristics of the artefact, later termed the Baghdad Battery, led König to suggest that the artefact was in fact a type of electrochemical battery.

Debate over the “Battery” has ensued among certain academic circles since König’s assertion. More recently, however, it received popular attention in the mainstream media. An episode of the Discovery Channel’s show Mythbusters(which aired March 23, 2005) called into question the possibility of the artefact’s application as an electrical device. The show’s cast replicated the artefact and attempted three different applications – electroplating a medallion, relieving pain with acupuncture via electro stimulation, and delivering a shock into a person such that he or she would acknowledge a divine experience. The show concluded that all three applications were “plausible,” but also concluded that such applications were doubtful.

In 1996, the popular journal, Skeptical Enquirer, had also allowed for the possibility of the Baghdad Battery’s use as an electrical device, but expressed misgivings. Eggert explained that an absence of artefacts such as connecting wires, electroplated metals, and written records weaken the claims of the Battery’s purported applications. Moreover, he criticized proponents of the electrical cell argument for not citing sources and/or depending on secondary/tertiary sources. Finally, he considered Gebelein’s suggestion that the artifact is actually a fertility symbol. He explained that the copper pipe and iron rod are associated with human reproductive organs in “the affair of Venus (in alchemy related to copper) with Mars (related to iron)”.

Lithium, Lithium-Ion and Lithium-Polymer batteries No history of the battery would be complete without mentioning what are, quite likely, the most popular types of batteries currently available on the market: Li, Li-Ion and Li-Polymer.

The first experiments regarding Li (lithium) batteries began way back, in 1912, under G.N. Lewis. However, the first commercial products of this type arrived just in the 1970's, with the first Li-Ion battery following in 1991. The Li-Ion batteries, developed by American chemist John B. Goodenoughfor Sony, were more stable thantheir lithium-only counterparts. However, an even better Li-based design emerged in 1996, when Li-Polymer batteries were introduced. In their case, the electrolyte is stored in a solid polymer composite, with the electrodes and separators laminated to each other. This way, the form factor of a Li-Polymer battery can vary quite a lot, making it a prime choice for portable devices.

NiMH batteries were developed towards the end of the 1980's by Stanford R. Ovshinsky and represent a variant of the NiCd battery within which the cadmium electrode was replaced with one made of a hydrogen-absorbing alloy. The NiMH batteries last a lot longer than NiCd and are also a lot more eco-friendly, given the fact that, after all, Cadmium is a pretty toxic material.

Future developments Although modern batteries have pretty much the same functioning principles as older batteries, by improving their chemical components, engineers from various companies have managed to pump a lot more functioning life into them. And this trend will most likely continue in the future, when batteries become a lot more important than they are today, especially since battery-powered electrical automobiles are regarded as one of the most important alternatives to today's fuel-powered (and polluting) cars. Also, fuel cells are gaining quite a momentum, which means that improved versions will be very popular as well. As a conclusion, it's quite clear that, in some form or another, batteries are here to stay, and their role will be a lot more important in the future, as mankind focuses on cleaner, more eco-friendly ways of producing energy.

2. Переведите на русский язык следующие английские сочетания:

1. secondary/tertiary sources

2. gadget-wielding person

3. here to stay

4. completely oxidized iron rod

5. artefact’s application

6. via electro stimulation

7. fertility symbol

8. to express misgivings

9. solid polymer composite

10. hydrogen-absorbing alloy

3. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты следующих словосочетаний:

1. вторичные/третичные источники

2. электрический ток

3. химическая реакция

4. названный в честь Вольта

5. цилиндрическая медная труба

6. соединительные провода

7. символ плодородия

8. водород-поглащающий сплав

9. ядовитый материал

10. портативные устройства

4. Найдите в тексте слова, имеющие общий корень с данными словами. Определите, к какой части речи они относятся, и переведите их на русский язык:

1. usually

2. apply

3. know

4. allowance

5. more

6. oxygen

7. high

8. argue

9. cover

10. earth

5. Задайте к выделенному в тексте предложению все типы вопросов (общий, альтернативный, разделительный, специальный: а) к подлежащему, б) к второстепенному члену предложения

1. Выполните анализ данных предложений, обратив внимание на следующие грамматические явления:формы глаголов tobe, tohave; конструкции thereis/thereare; времена группы IndefiniteActive, IndefinitePassive; степени сравнения прилагательных; модальные глаголы и их эквиваленты.

1. We talk about batteries, those things that no gadget-wielding person could live without, which allow us to listen to music while on the go, work on computers wherever we might be, talk on our mobile phones and much, much more.

2. A cylindrical copper pipe was held fast by asphalt and extended down into the vase.

3. He explained that the copper pipe and iron rod are associated with human reproductive organs in “the affair of Venus with Mars”.

4. The Li-Ion batteries, developed by American chemist John B. Goodenough for Sony, were more stable than their lithium-only counterparts.

5. And this trend will most likely continue in the future, when batteries become a lot more important than they are today, especially since battery-powered electrical automobiles are regarded as one of the most important alternatives to today's fuel-powered (and polluting) cars.