Nafziger Economic Development (4th ed)

absorptive capacity, 362, 737

Academic Consortium on International Trade (ACIT), 502

accelerator, 162, 737

ACIT. See Academic Consortium on International Trade

Adelman–Morris theory, 95, 186–187, 737 adjustment programs

IMF and, 568, 681

liberalization and, 3, 700. See also liberalization political economy of, 683

poverty and, 209. See also poverty reform and, 677. See also reforms SDA and, 210

structural adjustment, 543, 737 World Bank and, 568, 677, 681

See also specific countries, programs adverse selection, 494, 737

AEC. See African Economic Community Africa

AGOA and, 625

annual growth in, 86–87 civil wars in, 19–20 colonialism and, 147 crisis in, 18

ECH and, 18, 682 education in, 204 GDP in, 18

green revolution and, 232 land redistribution, 248 MDG goals, 18

polygyny belt, 222

See specific programs, states, topics

Africa Live Data Base, 344

African Economic Community (AEC), 643 Afro-Asian relations, 57, 176, 657

Agency for International Development (AID), 21 aggregate models, 363

agriculture, 78, 128, 237 biotechnology, 264 Burfisher model, 628 capital investment and, 250 CGIAR and, 287, 288 China, 721

credit and, 251

development and, 223, 230 elasticity of supply and, 257 export crops, 237

farms. See farming food and, 237. See food grain imports, 237

green revolution. See green revolution industry and, 99–100. See industrialization innovations in, 54, 220. See also innovation investment and, 135, 250

irrigation and, 255 labor force, 97, 262

land redistribution and, 246 LDCs and, 224, 226 mechanization and, 250–251 migration and. See migration

nonagricultural production, 253, 262, 313 output in, 97

peasants and. See peasant society poor policies, 231

population growth and, 249–250 poverty and. See poverty productivity in, 224

protective policy and, 628 reforms and, 246, 720 research in, 230, 287 retail enterprises and, 262 role of, 221

rural poverty and, 220–221 specialized farms, 227 subsistence farmers, 226 surplus labor from, 138 transformation in, 220

See also farming; specific topics, countries aid programs, 65, 518, 520, 737

AID. See Agency for International Development AIDS epidemic, 232, 324, 354, 355

air pollution, 428 Ake, Claude, 19 alcoholism, 191 Angola, 116

anti-globalization, 10, 502–503, 737 antidumping, 602

APEC. See Asian-Pacific Economic Cooperation apartheid, 37, 737

828Index

appropriate technology, 46, 326, 328, 378, 737 Argentina, 82, 640

arid lands, 432 Aristotle, 47

Arkwright frame, 125–126 Arrow, Kenneth, 121

ASEAN. See Association of South-East Asian Nations

Asian-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), 571 Asian tigers, 24, 63, 67, 737–738

Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN), 67, 85, 620, 621, 737–738

asymmetric information, 494, 737 authoritarianism, 112, 234, 323, 400 automobiles, 23–27

backward linkages, 136, 738 Baker plan, 578

balance of payments, 505, 508 deficits, 508, 554 employment and, 601 equilibrium in, 678, 738 foreign aid and, 501 inflation and, 487 international aid, 501 merchandise trade, 487 stages in, 508

trade balances. See trade balances balanced growth, 132–133, 135, 158, 161,

738

banking, 466–467 adverse selection, 494 banking systems, 466 capital flight, 555 crisis and, 558

debt cancellation, 573 financial crisis and, 551 fiscal planning and, 656 Islamic rules, 495

lending programs, 568, 573 moral hazard and, 494

risk premiums, 559 standards, 540

See specific organizations, topics

Baran model, 123–124, 142, 143–144, 158 Barro, Robert, 91

basic needs, 42, 738 growth and, 43 human rights and, 43 index of, 34

nutritional, 172. See also health basis points, 560

Baumol, W. J., 88

benefit–cost analysis, 379, 383, 386 Berg report, 235

Berry, A., 247

Big Mac index, 31

big push thesis, 64, 133 bilateral flows, 510, 541

bilateral investment treaties (BITs), 531 biodiversity, 434, 435, 436 biotechnology, 264, 604

birth rate, 277 abortion and, 298

contraceptives and, 297 crude, 273

family-planning programs, 298 fertility and, 282, 297 modernization, 301

See also population

BITs. See bilateral investment treaties Black Death, 277

black market, 30, 648 boomerang effect, 595–596

borderless economies, 65, 615, 737 Botswana, 145

bourgeoisie, 59, 158, 738 Brady plan, 579

brain drain, 348 brain gain, 523 Brazil, 82, 199

Bretton Woods system, 86, 738 Brown, L. R., 285

budget constraints, 712 buffer stocks, 627, 738 Bulgaria, 84 bureaucratization, 47 Bush administration, 572 Bushmen, 145

CACs. See collective action clauses Cairncross, A. K., 130, 132, 362 call centers, 7

Canada, 77 capital

absorptive capacity, 362, 737 accumulation, 284–285, 367 agriculture and, 250

banking and, 555 capital accounts, 505 capital costs, 323

capital markets, 110, 493, 505, 556, 689, 739

capitalism. See capitalism credit and, 203

flight of, 555, 556–557, 560 flows of, 545

formation, 2, 131, 150, 295 growth and, 362, 363 import, 505

income and, 367 increasing, 473

industry and. See industrialization inflows, 504

interest rates and, 323 investment and, 361 labor and, 155

land and, 239

monopolies. See monopolies movement of, 638

natural capital, 450–451 neoclassical model, 155 price of, 329

stock, 102

technology and, 102, 239 utilization rates, 329

See also capitalism capital-intensive methods, 328, 379

capitalism, 22, 57, 60, 127, 402, 405, 739 feudalism and, 91

globalization and, 502 golden age of, 745 indicative plan, 689 neoclassical theory, 155 nomenklatura and, 708 origins of, 60

poverty and, 60 Protestantism and, 59, 93–94

See also capital

carbon dioxide (CO2), 102, 438, 439, 440 Cargill/Monsanto, 228

Carnegie, A., 404 cartels, 63, 416 Castro, F., 44, 524 catastrophe, 30

Catholic religion, 58–59, 403 causation, 110

CCL. See contingent credit lines cellular phones, 372

CFCs. See chlorofluorocarbons

CGIAR. See Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research

chaebols, 67, 137, 739 Chenery-Strout models, 508 child labor, 606, 607

child mortality, 354 Chile, 698

China, 44, 55, 56, 700, 721 agricultural policies, 253–254, 721 banking reform, 730

civilization of, 64

Cultural Revolution, 72, 232, 253–254, 298, 327, 405, 408

decollectivization, 262, 733 Deng and, 72

famine in, 234 farm prices, 235 fast growers in, 82 FDI, 731

food production, 232, 234 GNI per capita, 24

Great Leap Forward, 234 growth experience, 72 India and, 232

individual economy in, 408, 722 industry in, 723, 726

inequality in investment, 729

international trade and, 730 Mao and, 71–72

market economy, 719 poverty, 729

reforms in, 235, 723, 727 socialism in, 71, 720 SOEs and, 699, 720, 728

Soviet Union and, 70–71, 260 transitions to market, 732 TVEs and, 720, 722

U.S. and, 25

chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 438, 447 cholera, 353

church authority, 91 civil society, 112, 739 Clark, Gregory, 137 class divisions, 23–27

classical theory, 124, 161, 739 classification of development, 20, 21 clientelism, 19, 113, 116

climate, 434 Cline, W., 247 Clinton, W. J., 303

CFCs. See chlorofluorocarbons closed economy, 154

club convergence, 91

Club of Rome study, 287, 449 CO2. See carbon dioxide Coase theorem, 423, 739 Cobb-Douglas model, 153 coffee market, 228

collective action clauses (CACs), 576 collective farms, 260

colonialism, 60, 145, 147, 231, 351, 401 Columbia School, 569

command economies, 363 commanding heights, 657 commercialization, 140, 227 commodities, 608, 626 common market, 643 commons, tragedy of, 427, 449

Commonwealth of Independent States, 111 communications technology, 375 communism, 22, 68

communes, 260 Communist party, 705 monopoly and, 705 Russian revolution, 92 Soviet Union and, 716 See also socialism

comparative advantage, 594, 596, 632 doctrine of, 592

foreign investment, 595 path dependence of, 603 trade, 592

comparison-resistant services, 30, 740 complete economic union, 643 computer technology, 344, 370, 373 ConAgra, 228

concessional loans, 209, 510 conditional convergence, 91 conditionality, 678 conservativism, 143, 149

Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), 287, 288

consumption

consumer sectors, 28–29, 712 CPI and, 478

demonstration effect, 132 income, 295

industry consumer goods, 71 inequality, 183 labor-intensive goods, 326 luxury components, 326, 603

contested markets, 64 contingent credit lines, 543 contingent valuation, 431 contraceptives, 297 contract farming, 228 contractionary polices, 681 convergence, 88

capital mobility, 155 club convergence, 91 conditional, 91

convergence controversy, 88 neoclassical model and, 88 Solow model, 155 unconditional, 91

coordination failure, 137 corporate conglomerates, 67 corruption, 112, 115, 199 cost–push inflation, 481, 482–483 costs, of growth, 47, 323 crawling peg, 485

creative destruction, 712–713 creativity, 323, 400

credit, 203, 204, 251, 494 crossnational data, 18, 52 crowding, 192

Cuba, 44

cummulative distribution function, 199 currency systems, 323, 554

appreciation and, 65 currency board, 485 decontrol and, 324 depreciation, 64, 555 devaluation and, 635

exchange rates, 642. See exchange rates financial crises, 566, 639 overvaluation, 634, 711

See specific topics, nations customs union, 643

Daly impossibility theorem, 450 data base, standards for, 166–167 Davos forums, 10, 741

death rates. See mortality rates de Soto, H., 117

debts

Brady plan, 579 buybacks, 581 cancellation, 573 concerted action, 575 crisis, 552, 558, 560, 577 development swaps, 583 equity swaps, 581 exchanges, 580, 583 indicators of, 563

World Bank and, 741

See also specific programs, institutions, countries

defense budgets, 602

deficits, 508, 554. See trade balance deforestation, 421

demand, 134, 600 demand–pull inflation, 480 demand side theory, 131

democratization, 18, 112, 113, 717, 741 demographic transition, 277, 282, 304 demonstration effect, 132

Deng Xiaoping, 72, 253–254, 262 dependency theory, 2, 60, 144, 158, 161, 292 depreciation, 64, 555

deregulation, 150–151, 158 devaluation, 635 developing countries

characteristics of, 95

developed countries and, 88, 89, 266, 603 use of term, 22

See specific countries, topics development

agriculture, 223. See also agriculture classification of, 20

defined, 15, 21–22, 655 disparity reduction rate, 35 divergence in, 89, 655 economic structure, 101

education and, 106. See education evolutionary approach, 53 freedom and, 44

growth and, 15 historical perspective, 53 income and. See income invention and, 368 liberation and, 44 measurement of, 15 O-ring theory, 137 planning and, 655

population and, 271, 284 research and, 368 theories of, 123

See also growth; specific countries, topics dialectical materialism, 130

Diamond, J., 53 DICE model, 445 Dickens, C., 60

differentiation, of products, 599

diminishing returns, law of, 88, 124–125, 749–750

direct taxes, 469

dirigiste debate, 3, 657, 658 disability, 354, 712 disasters natural, 214 discount rate, 381

disease, 232, 281. See health; specific diseases disparity reduction rate, 35

distance learning, 344 distributional weights, 384 diversity, 435. See also biodiversity Doha Development Round, 622 dollar, U.S., 524, 555, 645

depreciation of, 555 dollarization, 640, 741–742 euro and, 645

exchange rate, 485 price of, 324

domestic savings, 150 domestic violence, 191 domesticated animals, 54

doubling time, in computing, 74 Douglas, P., 154

DRF. See Debt Reduction Facility drugs, 633

Drummond, Ian, 130 dual economies, 103, 742 dumping, 602

duopoly profits of, 602 Dutch disease, 418, 419

Earth Summit, Rio de Janeiro, 443, 445 EBRD. See European Bank for Reconstruction

and Development

ECA. See Economic Commission for Africa ecology, 53

Economic Commission for Africa (ECA), 18, 682 economies of scale, 259, 597

education, 42 brain drain, 348

child labor and, 607 computers and, 344 development and, 106 distance learning, 344 earning ability and, 338 education index, 37 educational policy, 329 elementary, 242, 337 gender and, 341

health and, 334

human capital and, 334 income and, 339

investment in, 66, 329, 337, 339, 360 labor and, 330, 345

literacy and. See literacy noneconomic benefits of, 337 overeducation, 330

parental, 339

Ph.D. level, 348 planning in, 346

poverty and, 168–169, 339 primary, 338, 339 priorities in, 43

returns to, 335, 336, 360 screening effect, 338 secondary, 342

skill levels and, 242 specialized, 345 teleconferencing, 344 training, 345 unemployment, 324, 329

elasticity, of supply, 257 elderly, 196, 206 electric motor, 371 electronics, 2, 344, 370 elites, 143–144, 213

employment, 2, 308, 693 balance of payments and, 601

employment problems, 205, 309 general theory of, 320

income and, 320. See also income industrialization and, 314 internal balance and, 680

labor. See labor force endogenous technology, 137 energy, limits on, 290 Engels, Friedrich, 127, 322 Engel’s law, 742 engineering approach, 378 Enlightenment period, 59

Enterprise for the Americas Initiative (EAI), 583

entitlements, 233, 266, 290 entrepreneurs, 309, 398

achievement and, 399 civil service and, 402 defined, 393

developing countries and, 394 enterprise and, 473

functions of, 396 as gap-filler, 395 India and, 406

individual economy and, 722 industry and, 597 innovation and, 392, 393 Kilby model, 397

marginal individuals and, 403 monopoly and, 405, 709 motivation of, 399

multiple function, 399 organization, 392 promotion of, 647 Schumpeterian theory, 394 self-assessment, 399

technological mobilization, 407 trading background, 401

entropy, 451, 742

832Index

environment, 102, 288 defined, 414 degradation of, 716

market imperfections and, 422 natural resources and, 413, 414 policy failures, 422

pollution, 67, 420, 426, 438 population and, 582

trade and, 607

ERDF. See European Regional Development Fund

Essay on the Principle of Population (Malthus), 284

Ethiopia, 192 Eurasian societies, 54

euro currency, 541, 546–547, 638, 645 European Bank for Reconstruction and

Development (EBRD), 700

European Economic and Monetary Union, 546–547

European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), 77

European Union, 111, 700, 743 evolutionary approach, 53, 203 exchange rate, 65, 263, 633

Bretton Woods system, 86 crawling peg, 485 currency mismatch, 642 devaluation, 482

dollar. See dollar, U.S. dual, 637

exchange controls, 558, 634 exchange costs, 321–322 exports and, 150

flexibilty and, 572 GNP and, 29 hedging and, 567

inflation targeting, 641 managed floating, 554, 641 poverty and, 257

present system, 633 prices and, 257, 594, 638 rate change, 258–259 reforms and, 689 stability and, 638

trade and, 689, 730

See also specific currencies, topics expenditure policy, 477, 681 exponential growth, 77

exports

agriculture and, 237 bias against, 635 exchange rates and, 150 export expansion, 612

export purchasing power, 610 external balance and, 680 LDCs and, 104

liberalization and, 601 primary export earnings, 626 tariffs and, 614

terms of trade, 198

See also trade balances; specific topics, countries

extension services, 254, 328, 347–348 external debt, 64, 551, 552

external economies, 133, 383, 598 external equilibrium, 686

external shocks, 64 external stabilization, 485

factor endowment, 600

factor intensity, of commodities, 604–605 factor price distortions, 321, 328, 386 factor proportions theory, 594

failed states, 116, 117 families, 191

as entrepreneurs, 398 extended, 97

family-planning programs, 282, 298, 299, 304 farm families, 4

in United States, 4 famine, 234, 237 farming, 78, 97

collective, 259, 260, 261 communes, 260 contract, 228 cooperative, 259

cotton gin, 125–126 credit markets and, 251

domesticated animals and, 53–54 economies of scale and, 259 extension services, 254

farm households, 222, 223 farm prices, 66

fertilizer and, 256

green revolution and, 230–231. See green revolution

household responsibility system, 261–262 insecticides, 281, 289

marketing and, 256 mechanization of, 250–251, 252

multinational corporations and, 228 peasant farms, 226. See peasant society poverty. See poverty

prices and, 629

private entities research, 255 productivity, 246, 248 property rights and, 249–250 rural services, 259 specialized, 227

state and, 259 storage and, 256 See also agriculture

FDI. See foreign direct investment Fei–Ranis model, 140

Fel’dman model, 69, 665 Fertile Crescent, 54

fertility rates, 282, 297, 305 feudal economy, 58, 91, 126

financial crises, 494, 551, 566, 639. See also specific countries

Fisher index, 27 fishing, 238 food, 42

agriculture, 237. See agriculture aid and, 520

average production, 229 China and, 232

deficits and, 230 distribution of, 290 entitlements and, 290 FAO and, 245, 246 fish, 238

food-for-work program, 208 FSI and, 230

grains, 238 hunger and, 245 income and, 194 India and, 232 meat and, 238

nutrition and, 290, 353 output and, 237 population and, 284, 285 research and, 287 technology and, 287

total world production, 237, 266

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 245, 246

food security index (FSI), 230 foreign aid, 501, 508, 511, 515, 517

foreign direct investment (FDI), 150, 501, 508, 528, 529, 530, 731

forward linkages, 136

Frank dependency approach, 145, 158 Franko, L. G., 62

free-market liberalism, 598 free riding, 448

free trade, 91, 502, 603, 643

Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA), 645

Friedman, M., 149

FSI. See food security index fundamentalists, 569 fungible aid, 522, 744 Furtado theory, 144, 158

G-7. See Group of Seven

G-8. See Group of Eight

G-10. See Group of Ten

Gandhi, Mahatma, 46

GATS. See General Agreements on Trade in Services

GATT. See General Agreements on Tariffs and Trade

GDI. See gender-related development index GDP. See gross domestic product

gender effects, 38–39, 192, 195, 296, 341, 407, 744–745

General Agreements on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 21, 622, 744–745

General Agreements on Trade in Services (GATS), 631

generalized system of tariff preferences (GSP), 21, 625

genetic use restriction technologies (GURTs), 265 genetically modified organisms (GMOs), 264 genomics, 264

Genovese, E. D., 44

genuine progress indicator (GPI), 455, 745 geographic targeting, 208

Gini index, 19, 179, 181, 184, 745 global distance learning network, 344 global production networks (GPNs), 745 global public goods, 287, 515, 745 global warming, 437

globalization, 6, 185–186, 266, 501, 745 anti-globalization, 10, 502–503 capitalism and, 502. See capitalism climate and, 437

competition and, 2, 615 defined, 501

environment and. See environment free trade and, 502

GPNs, 745 labor costs, 606

middle classes and, 10

MNCs and, 228. See multinational corporations

polarization and, 503 production sharing, 615 public goods, 287, 515, 745 self-reliance and, 45

trade in services, 29

See also specific topics

GMOs. See genetically modified organisms GNI. See gross national income

GNP. See gross domestic product golden age, of growth, 79 Gorbachev, M., 71

GPNs. See global production networks grains, 238. See also farming

Grameen Bank, 204 Great Depression, 369 Greece, 84

green markets, 745

green revolution, 66, 198, 206, 222, 230–231, 239, 256, 287, 288

green taxes, 444

greenhouse effect, 437, 438, 443 gross domestic product (GDP), 30

deflator, 478 growth in, 564

information technology and, 2 measurement errors, 33 purchasing power and, 33 world leaders in, 55

gross national income (GNI), 15

834Index

gross national produce (GNP), 745 catastrophe and, 30

developed countries and, 28–29 developing countries and, 29 exchange rate and, 29

GNI and, 15, 16 growth and, 75 household, 28 measurement errors, 33 modern growth and, 56

national-income data, 25 per capita, 467

PQLI indicators, 34 price level of, 25–26, 30

problems with, 25, 27, 33 production costs and, 28–29 purchasing power and, 30, 33 weighted indices for, 39 welfare and, 29, 30

Group of Eight (G-8), 746

Group of Seven (G-7), 80, 584, 746 Group of Ten (G-10), 746

growth, 123

Adelman–Morris theory, 737 ancient, 54

annual rates, 75 basic needs and, 43

capital formation and, 362. See capital computing rates, 16

defined, 15 development and, 15 drive to maturity, 129

econometric studies of, 363 employment and. See employment endogenous, 155

expectations and, 48 exponential, 77

external trade and, 507, 591 GNP and, 75

income and, 210, 737. See income increase in inputs, 366

industry and. See industrialization inflation and, 488. See inflation knowledge and, 364 liberalization and, 591–592. See

liberalization limits to, 448 medieval, 54 modern, 56

neoclassical theory, 153 as normal condition, 128

poverty and, 165, 184, 185, 202, 212 R&D and, 157

rate of, 191 rationalism and, 47 redistribution and, 211 Rostow on, 128 saving and, 158

scientific method and, 47 sources of, 362

stages in, 128 staple theory, 626 takeoff stage, 128

technical progress and, 362, 364 trade and, 591

trickle-down theory, 211

See also specific topics, countries

GSP. See generalized system of tariff preferences

GURTs. See genetic use restriction technologies

Hagen theory, 132, 400 Hamilton, A., 597, 600

Handbook of Economic Growth

(Aghion/Durlauf), 13 Hardin, G., 423, 427, 458 Harrigan, J., 151

Harris–Todaro model, 317, 318, 746 Harrod–Domar model, 153, 162, 163 hawala system, 526

Hayami–Ruttan model, 252

HDI. See human development index health, 42

education and, 334 investment and, 324 nutrition and, 205, 353 pandemics and, 2 physical condition, 323

Heckscher–Ohlin theory, 594, 604 hedging, 567

Henry, J., 334 herding, 569 Heston, A., 72 Hicks, J. R., 363

highly indebted poor countries (HIPCs), 515–516, 585, 746

HIPCs. See highly indebted poor countries Hirschman model, 135, 158

historical methods, 53, 126

HIV/AIDS epidemic, 280, 324, 354, 355 Hong Kong, 63

households, 191

developing countries and, 28 family and. See families farms. See farming

GNP and, 28 modeling of, 360

peasants. See peasant society responsibility system, 118, 261–262 survey data, 217–218

units of, 181 women and, 222

housing, 42

human capital, 154, 157, 334, 335, 360

human development index (HDI), 35, 38–39, 52, 91, 169, 746

human freedom index (HFI), 96 human poverty index (HPI), 76, 168 human rights, 43

Human Rights Watch, 116

humanism, 59 hunger, 245 Huntington, S., 96

IBRD. See World Bank

ICCC. See International Convention on Climate Change

ICT. See information and communications technology

ICU. See International Clearing Union

IDA. See International Development Association IFPRI. See International Food Policy Research

Institute

IIE. See Institute for International Economics illegal cities, 117

ILO. See International Labor Organization

Imagine There’s No Country (Bhalla), 183 IMF. See International Monetary Fund immigration, 605

immunization, 194 imperialism, 60, 123–124 imports, 258–259, 482

DC policies, 622

external balance and, 680 industrialization and, 613 protecting, 65

substitution, 258–259, 482, 612, 613, 678

terms of trade and, 198 impossibility theorem, 450 impossible trinity, 638 incentives, 473, 704 income

capital and, 367 consumption and, 295 demand and, 600

distribution of, 2, 179, 302, 472, 604 EAEH income, 28–29

earning ability, 338 education and, 339 employment and, 320

equality, 41, 210. See also income inequality expected, 318

food and, 194

income-gap approach, 178 income tax, 469, 472, 477

inequality in. See income inequality inflation and, 487

labor-intensive goods and, 326 life expectancy and, 280 national income model, 504 non-cash income, 167

policies on, 465, 485 poverty. See poverty rural, 190, 245 stability of, 471 taxes and, 474, 477 terms of trade, 610 urban jobs, 318

U.S. and, 28, 190

wages. See wages

See also specific groups, countries income inequality, 4, 165, 212

assessment of, 207–208 between-country, 165 data on, 165

developed countries and, 190 economic policies and, 202 Gini index, 181

income categories and, 188 income levels and, 202

inverted U-shaped curve, 95, 202 personal income distribution, 180 policies to reduce, 202

poverty, 171, 202. See poverty rural, 239

variances in, 95

increasing returns to scale, 597

index of sustainable economic welfare (ISEW), 455

India, 57, 201, 372 affluence in, 6

Barga operation, 247 call centers, 7

capital cost in, 323 China and, 232

deindustrialization of, 145 democracy in, 201–202 entrepreneurs and, 406 farming in, 4, 6, 224 five-year plans, 70

food, 232 golden ages of, 8

ICT production, 8 individual firms and, 491 land reform, 247, 249 liberalization and, 202 Mahalanobis model, 69–70 monopoly rents, 491 Nehru and, 69–70

new industrial policy, 202 planning and, 659 poverty, 6, 173, 202

real incomes, 10 redistribution in, 249 software sector, 8 Soviet model and, 69

transportation costs, 5–7 indicative plans, 22, 665, 689 indirect taxes, 469 individualism, 59 indivisibilities, 133, 385 Indonesia, 67

agriculture in, 197 economic growth, 196 financial crisis, 197 Nigeria and, 196 nutritional levels, 197 poverty in, 197

rural credit program, 198