- •Б1бл1ятэка мдлу
- •§ 1. Definition 14
- •§ 3. However, the structure of a language is never purely synthetic or purely analytical. Accordingly in the English language there are:
- •§ 4. Owing to the scarcity of synthetic forms the order of words, which is fixed in English, acquires extreme importance: The fisherman caught a fish.
- •§ 5. One of the marked features of the English language is the extensive use of substitutes. A word substitute saves the repetition of a word in certain conditions. Here belong one, that, do.
- •The noun
- •§ I. The noun is a word expressing substance in the widest sense of the word.
- •§ 2. The noun has the following morphological characteristics:
- •§ 4. Morphological composition of nouns.
- •§ 5. Classification of nouns.
- •§ 7. The category of case.
- •§ 1. General notion.
- •§ 2. The use of the indefinite article with class nouns.
- •§ 3. The use of the definite article with class nouns.
- •§ 4. The use of articles with class nouns modified by attributes.
- •§ 5. With nouns of material used in a general sense, when a certain material as such is meant, no article is used.
- •§ 14. Names of hotels, ships, newspapers and magazines.
- •§ 15. Names of cardinal points.
- •§ 16. Names of months and days.
- •§ 17. The use of articles with nouns modified by proper nouns.
- •§ 18. The use of the indefinite article with nouns in set expressions.
- •§ 19. The use of the definite article with nouns in set expressions.
- •§ 20. Nouns in set expressions used without an article.
- •§ 21. The use of articles with predicative nouns.
- •§ 22. The use of articles with nouns in apposition.
- •§ 23. Class nouns used in address take no article.
- •§ 24. Place of the article.
- •§ 25. Ways of expressing the meaning of the English articles in Russian.
- •§ 26. The use of articles with the nouns day, night, morning, evening.
- •§ 27. The use of articles with names of seasons.
- •§ 28. The use of articles with the nouns school, college, bed, prison, jail.
- •§ 29. The use of articles with the noun town.
- •§ 30. The use of articles with the names of meals.
- •§ 31. The use of articles with names of languages.
- •§ 32. Most.
- •§ 33. Few, a few, the few; little, a little, the little.
- •§ 34. Two, the two; three, the three, etc.
- •§ 35. The second, a second.
- •§ 36. Another, the other.
- •§ 37. Last, the last.
- •§ 38. Next, the next.
- •§ 39. A number, the number.
- •§ 1. The adjective is a word expressing a quality of a substance.
- •§ 2. The adjective has the following morphological characteristics:
- •§ 3. Spelling rules.
- •§ 4. The adjective has the following syntactical characteristics:
- •§ 5. Morphological composition of the adjective.
- •§ 6. Classification of adjectives.
- •§ 7. Grammatical characteristics of qualitative adjectives.
- •§ 8. Grammatical characteristics of relative adjectives.
- •§ 9. Substantivized adjectives.
- •The pronoun
- •§ 1. The pronoun is a part of speech which points out objects and their qualities without naming them.
- •§ 2. Classification of pronouns.
- •§ 3. Personal pronouns.
- •§ 4. Possessive pronouns.
- •In his turn old Jolyon looked back at his son. (Galsworthy)
- •§ 5. Reflexive pronouns.
- •2Nd person
- •3Rd person
- •§ 6. Reciprocal pronouns.
- •§ 7. Demonstrative pronouns.
- •§ 8. Interrogative pronouns.
- •§ 10. Conjunctive pronouns.
- •§ 11. Defining pronouns.
- •§ 12. Indefinite pronouns.
- •§ 1. The numeral is a part of speech which indicates number of or the order of persons and things in a series.
- •§ 2. Cardinal numerals.
- •§ 3. The functions of cardinal numerals in a sentence.
- •§ 4. Ordinal numerals.
- •§ 5. The functions of ordinal numerals in a sentence.
- •§ 1. The words of the category of state denote the temporary state or condition of persons or things.
- •§ 2. As regards form the words of the category of state have the prefix a-: ablaze, afire, aflame, afoot, afraid, asleep, awake, etc.
- •§ 3. They are mainly used in the function of a predicative. "He is awake!" Sally cried. (Saxton)
- •§ 4. Words of the category of state can be modified by adverbs of degree:
- •The verb
- •§ 2. According to their morphological structure verbs are divided into:
- •§ 3. The basic forms of the verb in Modern English are: the Infinitive, the Past Indefinite and Participle II: to speak —spoke — spoken.
- •§ 7. As has already been mentioned, the verb has the grammatical categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, and mood.
- •§ 9. Voice is the category of the verb which indicates the relation of the predicate to the subject and the object.
- •§ 10. Mood is a grammatical category which indicates the attitude of the speaker towards the action expressed by the verb from the point of view of its reality.
- •Tenses in the active voice
- •The present indefinite
- •§ 1. The formation of the Present Indefinite.
- •§ 2. The use of the Present Indefinite.
- •§ 3. The formation of the Past Indefinite.
- •Interrogative
- •§ 4. The use of the Past Indefinite.
- •§ 5. The formation of the Future Indefinite.
- •§ 6. The use of the Future Indefinite.
- •§ 7. The formation of the Future Indefinite in the Past.
- •Affirmative Interrogative Negative
- •§ 8. The use of the Future Indefinite in the Past.
- •§ 9. The formation of the Present Continuous.
- •Interrogative
- •Negative
- •§ 10. The use of the Present Continuous.
- •§ II.*"The formation of the Past Continuous.
- •Interrogative
- •§ 12. The use of the Past Continuous.
- •§ 13. The formation of the Future Continuous.
- •Affirmative
- •Interrogative
- •§ 14. The use of the Future Continuous.
- •§ 15. The formation of the Future Continuous in the Past.
- •Affirmative Interrogative Negative
- •§ 16. The use of the Future Continuous in the Past.
- •Verbs not used in the continuous form
- •§ 17. The formation of the Present Perfect.
- •Interrogative
- •Negative
- •§ 18. The use of the Present Perfect.
- •§ 19. The Past Indefinite and the Present Perfect.
- •§ 20. The formation of the Past Perfect.
- •Interrogative
- •Negative
- •§ 21. The use of the Past Perfect.
- •§ 22. The Past Indefinite and the Past Perfect.
- •§ 23. The formation of the Future Perfect.
- •Interrogative
- •§ 24. The use of the Future Perfect.
- •Affirmative Interrogative
- •Negative
- •§ 26. The use of the Future Perfect in the Past.
- •The perfect continuous form
- •§ 27. The formation of the Present Perfect Continuous.
- •Inlenojative
- •§ 28. The use of the Present Perfect Continuous.
- •I suppose you have been telling lies again. (Marryat)
- •§ 29. The Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Present Continuous.
- •§ 30. The Present Perfect and the Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive.
- •§ 31. The formation of the Past Perfect Continuous.
- •Negative
- •§ 32. The use of the Past Perfect Continuous.
- •§ 33. The Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Past Continuous.
- •§ 34. The formation of the Future Perfect Continuous.
- •Interrogative
- •§ 36. The formation of the Future Perfect Continuous in the Past.
- •Negative
- •§ 37. The use of the Future Perfect Continuous in the Past.
- •The passive voice
- •§ 1. The formation of the Passive Voice.
- •Present Indefinite Passive
- •Past Perfect Passive
- •§ 3. The use of tenses in the Passive Voice.
- •§ 4. Ways of translating the Passive Voice into Russian.
- •§ 5. Uses of the Passive Voice peculiar to the English language.
- •Modal verbs
- •§ 4. Must.
- •§ 5. Should1 and ought.
- •§ 8. Shall.
- •§ 9. Will.
- •§ 10. Would.
- •§11. Dare.
- •§ 12. Need.
- •I. Simple sentences
- •§ 5. In simple sentences the synthetic forms of the Subjunctive Mood are more frequent than the analytical forms. In simple sentences the Subjunctive Mood is used:
- •II. Complex sentences
- •§ 6. The Subjunctive Mood is used in conditional sentences to express an unreal condition (in the..Subordinate,, clause) and an unreal consequence (in the principal clause).
- •§ 10. The Subjunctive Mood is used in adverbial clauses of comparison (or manner) introduced by the conjunctions as if and as though (the latter is more literary).
- •§ 11. The Subjunctive Mood is used in predicative clauses:
- •§ 17. Ways of rendering the Subjunctive Mood in Russian.
- •§ 2. The characteristic traits of the verbals are as follows:
- •The participle
- •§ 5. The tense distinctions of the participle.
- •§ 6. The voice distinctions of the participle.
- •§ 7. The functions' of Participle I in the sentence.
- •§ 8. The functions of Participle II in the sentence. 1. Participle II as an attribute.
- •§ 9. Predicative constructions with the participle.
- •§ 10. The Objective Participial Construction.
- •§ 11. The Subjective Participial Construction.
- •§ 12. The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction.
- •§ 13. The Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction.
- •§ 14. Absolute constructions without a participle.
- •§ 15. The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction and the Nominative Absolute Construction are separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma or a semicolon.
- •The gerund
- •§ 16. The gerund developed from the verbal noun, which in course of time became verbalized preserving at the same time its nominal character.
- •§ 17. The double nature of the gerund.
- •§ 18. The tense distinctions of the gerund.
- •§ 19. The voice distinctions of the gerund.
- •§ 20. Predicative constructions with the gerund.
- •§ 21. The use of the gerund.
- •I am pleased with you (with your paper).
- •§ 22. The gerund and the infinitive.
- •§ 23. The functions of the gerund in the sentence.
- •Indirect object)
- •In spite of being busy, he did all he could to help her.
- •§ 24. The gerund and the participle.
- •§ 25. The gerund and verbal noun.
- •The infinitive
- •§ 27. The tense and aspect distinctions of the infinitive.
- •§ 28. The voice distinctions of the infinitive.
- •§ 29. The use of the infinitive without the particle to (the bare infinitive).
- •In this case, however, the particle to is sometimes used:
- •§ 30. The functions of the infinitive in the sentence.
- •§ 31. Infinitive constructions.
- •§ 32. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction.
- •§ 33. The Subjective Infinitive Construction.
- •§ 34. The /or-to-Infinitive Construction.
- •In other cases a clause is used with to be glad and to be sorry.
- •The adverb
- •§ 2. As to their structure adverbs are divided into:
- •§ 3. Some adverbs have degrees of comparison.
- •§ 4. According to their meaning adverbs fall under several groups:
- •§ 1. The modal words express the attitude of the speaker to the reality, possibility or probability of the action he speaks about.
- •§ 3. In the sentence modal words are used as parentheses.3
- •§ 1. The interjection is a part of speech which expresses various emotions without naming them.
- •§ 2. According to their meaning interjections fall under two main groups, namely .Emotional interjections and imperative interjections.
- •§ 3. Interjections may be primary and secondary.
- •§ 1. The preposition is a part of speech wich denotes the relations between objects and phenomena. It shows the relations between a noun or a pronoun and other words.
- •§ 2. As to their morphological structure prepositions fall under the following groups:
- •§ 4. Some prepositions are homonymous with adverbs and conjunctions.
- •§ 5. Some prepositions (on, in, by, over, off, up) are homonymous with postpositions.
- •§ 1. The conjunction is a part of speech which denotes connections between objects and phenomena. It connects parts of the sentence, clauses, and sentences.
- •§ 2. According to their morphological structure conjunctions are divided into the following groups:
- •§ 3. As to their function conjunctions fall under two classes:
- •§ 4. Coordinating conjunctions.
- •§ 5. Subordinating conjunctions.
- •The particle
- •§ 2. According to their meaning particles fall under the following main groups:
- •§ 2. The classification of simple sentences is based on two principles:
- •§ 3. According to their structure simple sentences are divided into two-member and one-member sentences.
- •Parts of the sentence
- •§ 7. Ft as the subject of the sentence.
- •§ 9. The simple predicate.
- •§ 12. The compound nominal predicate.
- •To grow
- •To look
- •To feel
- •To come
- •§ 15. The compound verbal predicate.
- •§ 17. The compound verbal aspect predicate.
- •§ 18. Mixed types of predicate.
- •§ 19. In the English language the predicate agrees with the subject in nerson and number.
- •§ 20. The following rules of agreement of the predicate with the subject should be observed:
- •The secondary parts of the sentence
- •§ 22. The object is a secondary part of the sentence which completes or restricts the meaning of a verb or sometimes an adjective, a word denoting state, or a noun.
- •§ 23. Ways of expressing the object.
- •§ 25. The direct object..
- •§ 26. The indirect object.
- •§ 27. The complex object.
- •§ 29. The attribute is a secondary part of the sentence which qualifies a noun, a pronoun, or any other part of speech that has a nominal character.
- •§ 30. Ways of expressing the attribute.
- •§ 32. The close apposition.
- •§ 33. The loose or detached apposition.
- •11. The adverbial modifier of concession, (it is very rare.)
- •§ 35. Ways of expressing the adverbial modifier.
- •§ 37.'The detached adverbial modifier.
- •§ 39. The detached object.
- •§ 40. The independent elements of the sentence are words and word-groups which are not grammatically dependent on any part of the sentence.
- •§ 41. A parenthesis can be expressed by:
- •§ 2. Inverted order of words.
- •§ 3. Certain types of sentences require the inverted order of words. These are:
- •If the subject is a pronoun inversion does not take place.
- •§ 5. Position of the object.
- •§ 6. Position of the attribute.
- •5. Adjectives stand after indefinite and negative pronouns.
- •§ 7. Position of adverbial modifiers.
- •The compound sentence and the complex sentence the compound sentence
- •§ 1. A compound sentence is a sentence which consists of two or more clauses coordinated with each other. A clause is part of a sentence which has a subject and a predicate of its own.
- •§ 2. We can distinguish the following types of coordination:
- •§ 3. A complex sentence consists of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses.
- •§ 6. Object clauses perform the function of an object to the predicate-verb of the principal clause.
- •§ 8. Attributive relative clauses can be restrictive and non-restrictive or descriptive.
- •§ 9. Attributive appositive clauses.
- •§ 10. The use »f relative pronouns in attributive relative clauses.
- •§ 11. Adverbial clauses.
- •§ 12. Adverbial clauses of time.
- •§ 13. Adverbial clauses of place.
- •§ 14. Adverbial clauses of cause.
- •§ 15. Adverbial clauses of purpose.
- •§ 16. Adverbial clauses of condition.
- •§ 17. Adverbial clauses of concession.
- •§ 18. Adverbial clauses of result.
- •§ 21. Some of the conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses are polysemantic and can introduce different types of adverbial clauses of time, cause, manner, and comparison.
- •The sequence of tenses
- •I've seen which way the wind is blowing. (Dreiser)
- •Indefinite in the past)
- •§ 8. In conventional direct speech the tenses are used according to the same principle which governs their uses in complex sen-
- •§ 3. Indirect statements.
- •§ 4. Indirect questions.
- •§ 5. Indirect orders and requests.
- •§ 6. Indirect offers, suggestions, and advice.
- •§ 7. Indirect exclamations.
- •§ 8. Greetings and leave-taking in indirect speech.
- •§ 2. With homogeneous members either a comma or no stop whatever is used.
- •§ 3. With detached members of the sentence either a comma or a dash is used.
- •§ 4. To separate parenthetical words, groups of words, and clauses a comma, a dash, or brackets may be used. The comma is the most usual.
- •§ 5. To separate interjections a comma or a note of exclamation may be used.
- •§ 6. To separate direct address a comma is used.
- •§ 7. Coordinate clauses joined asyndetically are always separated by a stop.
- •§ 8. Coordinate clauses joined by copulative conjunctions.
- •§ 9. Coordinate clauses joined by disjunctive conjunctions
- •§ 10. Coordinate clauses joined by adversative conjunctions.
- •§ 11. Clauses joined by causative-consecutive conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs are as a rule separated by a comma or a semicolon.
- •§ 12. As has been stated in Chapter XVII, § 6, a sentence containing direct speech consists of two independent clauses.
- •§ 13. Subject clauses as a rule are not separated from the principal clause by any stop.
- •§ 14. Predicative clauses as a rule are not separated from the principal clause by any stop. A comma is often used when they are joined asyndetically.
- •§ 15. Object clauses are not separated from the principal clause by a stop. If the object clause precedes the principal clause, a comma may or may not be used.
- •§ 16. Attributive clauses.
- •§ 17. Adverbial clauses.
- •§ 18. If in a complex sentence there are two or more homogeneous clauses, they are separated from each other by a comma.
- •§ 19. Adverbial clauses of manner.
- •§ 20. Adverbial clauses of comparison.
- •The compound-complex sentence
§ 1. General notion.
The article is a structural part of speech used with nouns. There are two articles in Modern English: the indefinite article and the definite article.
The indefinite article has the forms a and an. The form a is used before words beginning with a consonant sound (a book, a pen, a student). The form an is used before words beginning with a vowel sound (an opera, an apple, an hour). The article is pronounced [a], [an]; when stressed it is pronounced [ei], [sen].
The definite article has one graphic form the, which is pronounced in two ways: [di] before a vowel sound [di-'sepl] and [da] before a consonant sound [cia 'pen].
The indefinite article has developed from the Old English numeral an (one), and as a result of its origin it is used only with nouns in the singular.
The definite article has developed from the Old English demonstrative pronoun se and in some cases it has preserved this demonstrative meaning in Modern English.
The use of the indefinite article implies that the object is presented as belonging Ja a. class.
The use of the definite article shows that a particular object is meant.
The absence of articles with class nouns in the plural, with abstract aouns and nouns of material has grammatical significance: it shows that the nouns are "used in a general sense.
With nouns in the plural some isoTfen usecT. Some, as well as the absence of articles with class nouns in the plural, is the equivalent of the indefinite article in the singular. Some is used when the speaker wants to emphasize the idea of number. Some is also used with nouns of material if the idea of quantity is implied. Some has the meaning of 'several' with class nouns and 'a little' with nouns of material. Some is hardly ever translated into Russian.
USE OF ARTICLES WITH COMMON NOUNS
CLASS NOUNS
§ 2. The use of the indefinite article with class nouns.
Class nouns are used with the indefinite article: 1. When the speaker presents the object expressed by the noun as belorjgjng. to a certain .class. In this case the indefinite article has the meaning оРкакой-нибудь, какой-то, один' (in the meaning of 'некий').
She has a watch of her own.
On the green surface of the lake a little boat, with white wings faintly fluttering, rocked in the dewy breeze. (Voynlcli) Close beside them grew a rose-bush covered with scarlet hips. (Voynich)
In the plural no article is used in this case. If the idea of number is implied the noun is preceded by the pronoun some.
I liked the room because there were flowers in it.
"I have brought you some flowers..." "I hate to wear flowers."
(Voynich)
With a predicative noun, when the speaker states that the object denoted by the noun belongs to a certain class.
Miss Sharp's father was an artist. (Thackeray)
"Is your brother an agreeable man, Peggotty?" "Oh, what an
agreeable man he is!" (Dickens)
She works as a chemist. (Cronin)
In the plural neither the article nor the pronoun some is used.
They are good children, no doubt. (E. Bronte) "... they were business men when 1 was in the nursery." (Voynich)
After the conjunction as a predicative noun is often used without an article.
She was engaged as governess.
When the noun is used in a general sense. What is said of one representative of a class can be applied to all the representatives of the class. The article has the meaning of 'every'.
A drowning man catches at a straw.
In the plural neither the article nor the pronoun some is used. Real friends should have everything in common. (Wilde)
There are cases when the indefinite article preserves its old original meaning of 'one'.
A stitch in time saves nine.
He had hardly spoken a word since they left Rjccardo's door ... (Voynich)
This meaning is generally found with:
nouns denoting time, measure and weight.
4
A week or two passed. (Ch. Bronte)
"I'll overtake you in a minute," said Godfrey. (Eliot)
the numerals hundred, thousand, million and the nouns dozen, score.
He seems to have half a dozen languages at his finger-tips. (Voynich)
With nouns in the plural some is used. Oliver's sobs checked his utterance for some minutes. (Dickens)