экон.бизн4

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The world trading system was also restructured in the multilateral reduction in trade barriers negotiated under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. Gatt was the precursor of the WTO and, with hindsight, it boring name was a huge advantage. If you want to confer quietly and unmolested, it is unwise to call yourself the World Bank, the World Economic Forum or the International Monetary Fund.

But the liberalization of capital movements was perhaps even more important, and certainly more rapid, than the liberalisation of trade in goods and services. In 1980, most developed economies imposed restrictions, often severe, on any overseas investments by their citizens. I then had an academic colleague whose specialism was the theory and practice of exchange control. Before long, he had only Sweden and South Africa to focus on. I expect he is now in the palaeontology department.

The consequent globalization of industrial structure had different consequences for different industries. Boeing provided aircraft for everyone from a single plant in Seattle. Ford and General Motors made engines in one place, gearboxes in another, and put them together somewhere different still. Thus these companies were able to divorce completely the location of manufacture and the location of sale. McDonald’s, Hertz and PricewaterhouseCoopers, for whom production was necessarily local, brought to that production a global formula and a global brand.

Last, the term globalization came to encompass measures of domestic deregulation and privatization that had no direct relationship to internationalization of the world economy. Once, privatization was used as an umbrella term by opponents of market-oriented reforms. Today, globalization has a similar interpretation. Globalisation is things that people hostile to modern market economy dislike.

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Task 8. Translation practice A.

1. IFG advocates the implementation of trade barriers to protect local production and is against international trade unless a good or service can not be produced locally.

2. The WWF opposes the implementation of protectionist export subsidies, claiming that they are detrimental to developing countries’ interests, and argues in favour of intellectual property rights for land conservation and the protection of indigenous people’s rights.

3. CIEL perceives a sustainable global economy as one in which environmental concerns are managed separately from trade, and where trade rules and institutions support conservation and are environmentally responsible.

4. MSF claims that the poor’s access to medicine is restricted by market-driven prices, and that this is often the result of intellectual propertyrights protection that favours rich countries.

5. The WSF opposes free market policies, such as privatisation and trade liberalisation, and the implementation of intellectual property rights, promoting the decentralisation of world power to the national level.

6. AWorldConnected promotes free trade, arguing that protectionist policies such as trade barriers decrease the economic welfare of developing countries.

7.The Heritage Foundation argues in favour of free labour markets, claiming that they maximise productivity and employment opportunities, therefore promoting development.

8.World Growth advocates free trade and market-oriented solutions for sustainable development, the attainment of human rights and worker’s rights and environmental protection.

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9.The AEI advocates the implementation of intellectual property rights, arguing that they are essential for economic stability and prosperity, particularly for developing countries.

10.The Cato Institute views globalisation as a positive force that has encouraged the dissemination of market institutions and therefore peace and prosperity.

Task 9. Translation practice B.

1.Процесс глобализации состоит из трех взаимосвязанных компонентов – нового международного разделения труда, международного производства и политических отношений.

2.Поскольку обмен услугами и межотраслевой продукцией к началу тысячелетия превысил половину общего оборота мировой торговли, этот феномен получил название нового международного разделения труда.

3.Топливно-энергетический кризис середины 1970-х привел, с одной стороны, к снижению прибыльности (или даже убыточности) старых отраслей промышленности (индустрии «дымовых труб») в развитых странах, а с другой – к существенному расхождению условий национальных воспроизводств в ходе индустриализации – по ставкам зарплаты, уровню образования и квалификации рабочей силы, ставкам процента, цене сырья и энергии и т.п.

4.Международное производство ведется как на иностранных предприятиях, размещенных в зарубежных странах, так и на основе подрядов, переданных местным предприятиям.

5.Выпуск автомашин определенных марок рассредоточен по предприятиям семи стран, а предприниматели каждой страны отвечают за определенную фазу производства – проектирование, производство

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двигателей или электрооборудования и даже изготовление и распространение рекламы.

6.Составной частью глобализации стали политические факторы, прежде всего распад социалистического лагеря и СССР, за которым последовала и самоликвидация режимов социалистической ориентации в десятках развивающихся стран.

7.Основной смысл давления развитых государств на прочие страны заключался в придании глобализации всеобщего характера, а также в ускорении ее темпов таким образом, чтобы они опережали темпы развития экономики и объективные темпы роста международного разделения труда, независимо от положения тех или иных стран.

8.Одним из инструментов глобализации стала приватизация, понимаемая как переход в руки частных лиц (акционерных компаний) государственной, кооперативной, коллективной и прочих форм собственности.

9.Наличие государственного сектора со своими воспроизводственными закономерностями препятствовало свободному перемещению капитала и созданию единой социально-экономической системы. Поэтому приватизация была направлена на завершение создания единого мирового экономического и социально-экономического пространства.

10.В становлении глобализации в развивающихся и переходных странах большую роль сыграло насилие, которое осуществлялось международными экономическими организациями.

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Task 10. Reading and summarizing.

Проблемы вступления России в ВТО

При вступлении в ВТО по правилам данной организации Россия обязана договорится о своем членстве в этой международной организации со всеми странами-участницами. Поэтому процесс вступления России в ВТО достаточно долог и может занять еще некоторое время. Основная проблема вступления России в ВТО - это, в первую очередь, снятие ограничений на поставки товаров из-за рубежа, в каком-то смысле ограничений на конкуренцию со стороны иностранных компаний. Это приведет к тому, что отечественные производители могут оказаться не способными конкурировать на равных как с очень качественной западной продукцией, так и с очень дешевой китайской. Другое дело, что данный процесс будет происходить постепенно (потому и ведутся столь долгие переговоры), и у наших предприятий останется время для адаптации к новым условиям.

Поэтому эксперты полагают, что, несмотря на усиление конкуренции со стороны иностранных производителей при вступлении России в ВТО, влияние этого события на отечественную промышленность не станет очень значительным или катастрофичным, хотя каждому предприятию придется позаботиться о себе и повысить эффективность собственной работы.

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Globalization relies on three forces for development: the role of human migration, international trade, and rapid movements of capital and integration of financial markets.

Characteristics Globalisation/internationalisation has become identified with a number of

trends, most of which may have developed or accelerated since World War II. These include greater international movement of commodities, money, information, and people; and the development of technology, organisations, legal systems, and infrastructures to allow this movement. The actual existence of some of these trends is debated.

-Greater international cultural exchange.

-Spreading of multiculturalism, and better individual access to cultural diversity, for example through the export of Hollywood and Bollywood movies. However, the imported culture can easily supplant the local culture, causing reduction in diversity through hybridization or even assimilation. The most prominent form of this is Westernization, but Sinicization of cultures also takes place.

-Greater international travel and tourism

-Greater immigration, including illegal immigration

-Spread of local consumer products (e.g., food) to other countries (often adapted to their culture)

-World-wide fads and pop culture such as Pokémon, Sudoku, Numa Numa, Origami, Idol series, YouTube, and MySpace.

-World-wide sporting events such as FIFA World Cup and the Olympic

Games.

-Formation or development of a set of universal values.

-Development of a global telecommunications infrastructure and greater transborder data flow, using such technologies as the Internet, communication satellites, submarine fiber optic cable, and wireless telephones

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-Increase in the number of standards applied globally; e.g. copyright laws and patents

-The push by many advocates for an international criminal court and international justice movements.

Positive and negative effects

The term "globalization" is used to refer to these collective changes as a process, or else as the cause of turbulent change. The distinct uses include: Economically, socially and ecologically positive: as an engine of commerce; one which brings an increased standard of living — prosperity — to Third World countries and further wealth to First World countries.

Economically, socially, and ecologically negative: as an engine of "corporate imperialism;" one which tramples over human rights in developing societies, claims to bring prosperity, yet often simply amounts to plundering and profiteering. Negative effects include cultural assimilation via cultural imperialism, the export of artificial wants, and the destruction or inhibition of authentic local and global community, ecology and cultures.

It is often argued that even terrorism has undergone globalization, with attacks in foreign countries that have no direct relation with the attackers' own country. Since World War II, barriers to international trade have been considerably lowered through international agreements such as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). Particular initiatives carried out as a result of GATT and the WTO, for which GATT is the foundation, have included:

Promotion of free trade Of goods:

-Reduction or elimination of tariffs; construction of free trade zones with small or no tariffs.

-Reduced transportation costs, especially from development of containerization for ocean shipping.

Of capital:

-Reduction or elimination of capital controls.

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-Reduction, elimination, or harmonization of subsidies for local businesses.

Intellectual property restrictions

-Harmonization of intellectual property laws across nations (generally speaking, with more restrictions).

-Supranational recognition of intellectual property restrictions (e.g. patents granted by China would be recognized in the US).

Text 2

Historical precedents of Globalization

Although the term "globalization' was coined in the latter half of the twentieth century, and the term and its concepts did not permeate popular consciousness until the latter half of the 1980's; various social scientists have tried to demonstrate continuity between contemporary trends of globalization and earlier periods. Earlier forms of globalization existed during the Mongol Empire, when there was greater integration along the Silk Road.

The first steps towards Globalization as we know it nowadays were taken in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries, when the Spanish Empire reached to all corners of the world. The effects on European industries were notable, e.g. the Silver Mining in Schwaz in Austria was partly abandoned, as silver was available from the Spanish colonies for lower prices. Globalization became a business phenomena in the 17th century when the first Multinational was founded in The Netherlands. During the Dutch Golden Age the Dutch East India Company was established as a private owned company. Because of the high risks involved with the international trade, ownership was divided with Shares. The Dutch East India Company was the first company in the world to issue shares, an important driver for globalization.

Liberalization in the 19th century is often called "The First Era of Globalization", a period characterised by rapid growth in international trade and investment, between the European imperial powers, their colonies, and, later, the United States.The "First Era of Globalization" began to break down at the

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beginning with the first World War, and later collapsed during the gold standard crisis in the late 1920s and early 1930s. Countries that engaged in that era of globalization, including the European core, some of the European periphery and various European American and Oceanic offshoots, prospered. Inequality between those states fell, as goods, capital and labour flowed freely between nations.

Globalization in the era since World War II has been driven by advances in technology which have reduced the costs of trade, and trade negotiation rounds, originally under the auspices of GATT, which led to a series of agreements to remove restrictions on free trade. The Uruguay round (1984 to 1995) led to a treaty to create the World Trade Organization (WTO), to mediate trade disputes. Other biand trilateral trade agreements, including sections of Europe's Maastricht Treaty and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) have also been signed in pursuit of the goal of reducing tariffs and barriers to trade.

The world increasingly is confronted by problems that can not be solved by individual nation-states acting alone. Examples include cross-boundary air and water pollution, over-fishing of the oceans and other degradations of the natural environment, regulation of outer-space, global warming, international terrorist networks, global trade and finance, and so on. Solutions to these problems necessitate new forms of cooperation and the creation of new global institutions. Since the end of WWII, following the advent of the UN and the Bretton Woods institutions, there has been an explosion in the reach and power of Transnational corporations and the rapid growth of global civil society.

The Global scenario group, an environmental research and forecasting organization, views globalization as part of the shift to a Planetary Phase of Civilization, characterized by global social organizations, economies, and communications. The GSG maintains that the future character of this global society is uncertain and contested.