10. Tropes. Metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche.

Trope: The use of a word, phrase, or image in a way not intended by its normal signification. A metaphor is the interaction between the logical and contextual logical meanings of a word which is based on a likeness between objects and implies analogy and comparison between them. Similar to all lexical stylistic devices M may be genuine, that is original, invented by the writer, or trite, that is hackneyed (банальная), often used in the language. The M suggests an analogy. An implied analogy and likeness to concrete objects makes abstract ideas more concrete, complex ideas more simple and the thoughts more comprehensible. The M may be expressed through nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. The noun M may consist of one word or may have an attribute in the form of an “of-phrase”. The verb-M is very emphatic as it throws the metaphorical light on the subject of the sentence too. M-s expressed by adjectives and adverbs are called metaphorical epithets and will be dealt with in the chapter on the epithet. Sometimes a metaphor is not confined to one image. The writer finds it necessary to prolong the image by adding a number of other images, but all these additional images are linked with the main, central image. Such metaphors are called sustained or prolonged metaphors (But there was no May morning in his cowardly human heart).

A different type of interaction between logical and contextual logical meanings is called metonymy. It is based on definite relations between the object implied and the object named. The interaction between the logical and the contextual meanings of the words is based on close relations objectively existing between the part and the body itself. In metonymy relations between the object named and the object implied are various and numerous. Here are the most frequent types of relations: 1) The relations that exist between an instrument and the action it performs (or between an organ of the body and its function). 2) The relations that exist between an article of clothing and the person wearing it. 3) The relations that exist between the symbol and the phenomenon it symbolized. Apart from this group of metonymies some other trite types of metonymies should be mentioned – that is metonymies based on very close, common relations between objects. They are: a) The relations between the creator and his creation. b) The relations between the material and the thing made of it. c) The relations between the singular and the plural. This type of metonymy is called synecdochy. The stylistic effect of trite metonymies is in most cases weak. Metonymy as a genuine stylistic device is used to achieve concreteness of description. By giving a specific detail connected with the phenomenon, the author evokes a concrete and life-like image and reveals certain feelings of his own. By mentioning only one seemingly insignificant feature or detail connected with the phenomenon the author draws the reader’s attention to it and makes him see the character he describes as he himself sees it. (Then a pause, as the bonnet and dress neared the top of the Square).

Synecdoche: A trope in which a part stands for the whole. Example: "Tom just bought a fancy new set of wheels." There are types of synechdoche: a term denoting a part of something is used to refer to the whole thing ("The ship was lost with all hands [sailors]"; "mouths to feed" for hungry people, "white hair" for an elderly person, "the press" for news media; Britain - UK), a term denoting a thing (a "whole") is used to refer to part of it ("Use your head [brain] to figure it out."), a term denoting a specific class of thing is used to refer to a larger, more general class ("coke" for pop/soda, "castle" for home, "meat" or "bread" for food), a term denoting a general class of thing is used to refer to a smaller, more specific class, a term denoting a material is used to refer to an object composed of that material ("willow" for cricket bat, "copper" for penny, "roof" for a house, "boards" for stage, "ivories" for piano keys, "plastic" for credit card, "the hardwood" for a gym floor, "pigskin" for football).

The use of synecdoche is a common way to emphasize an important aspect of a fictional character; for example, a character might be consistently described by a single body part, such as the eyes, which come to represent the character. This is often used when the main character does not know or care about the names of the characters that he/she is referring to.