ГОС по анг.яз / ShPOR_BILET

Resume

1. об авторе;

2. жанр текста (роман, рассказ, статья, эссе, критика);

3. форма рассказа (описание, диалог, повествование);

4. тема;

5. структура (композиция);

6. основное настроение текста;

7. основные стилистические приемы в тексте (метафоры, метонимии, повторы, эпитеты + цель употребления);

8. основная идея (что автор хотел сказать и зачем писал это произведение).

1. Notion of sign system. Types of signs. Language as a sign system. Levels and units of language.

Sign is a material object that stands for smth else than itself. Signs are everything that organize our social life: money, schemes, traffic lights signals and others. With the help of signs the semantic information can be transferred, f.e. signal to stop, arrows of the street moving. Types of signs: 1. Iconic – graphic signs that imitate the form of the objects (pictures, traces); 2. Indexes – signs that show the direction (fingering, arrows); 3. Symbolic signs – they don’t imitate the form of the object or don’t show anything, but they are universal and powerful (words).

Language is a sign system. This system is open and dynamic. It is the combination of grammar, syntax, lexical, phonetic and morphological levels. Every level has its own rules and laws. Each level consists of the minimum units of the language, they are: morpheme, phoneme, words, word combinations, sentences

2. Notion of structural linguistics. Language and speech. Synchronic and diachronic approaches. Paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations. Principles of opposition in linguistics.

Structural linguistic is a school of linguistic that pays attention to the structure rather than to content of language. F.e. in grammatical category the paradigm is important, in phonetics oppositions are important, in syntax sentence structure is important.

Language is the unity of language as a system and language as an action. Language as a system is a set of rules plus the vocabulary. Speech is practice of use of this vocabulary and rules. Speech is the material incarnation (воплощение) of language. Speech is the only accessible, we can hear it, see it, produce it, but language is an abstraction.

Synchronic approach is the view of language from the modern position (--). Diachronic approach is the view from historical position (l). F.e. synchronically phraseological units are not always understandable, diachronically we can explain them (to come to the whole hog, red tape). In the diachronic researches the results of the synchronic are used. Researching of the language in the synchrony is important for the solving all the linguistics (языкознания) applications (прикладных задач). There are some disputable questions within the researchers regarding the approaches, some points of view. Frederic de Sossure considered that the subject of the diachronic linguistic is the relations between elements of historical chain replaced one by one, but not forming the system; the subject of synchronic approach is logical and psychological relations, joining elements and forming the system. Today the main point of view is that diachronic (l) study doesn’t exclude the notion of the system and synchronic (--) description cannot exclude the notion of evolution.

Syntagmatic relations are horizontal relations, f.e. маленькая девочка. A linguistic unit enters into syntagmatic relations with other units of the same level it occurs with. SR exist at every language level. They can be of three different types: coordinate, subordinate and predicative. Coordinate SR exist between the homogeneous linguistic units, they are the relations of independence: you and me; They were tired but happy. Subordinate SR is the relations of dependence when one linguistic unit depends on the other- teach + er - morphological level; a smart student - word-group level; predicative and subordinate clauses - sentence level. Predicative SR is the relations of interdependence: primary and secondary.

Paradigmatic relations are vertical relation in grammar, f.e. paradigm of case. These relations based on the principles of similarity. They exist between the units that can substitute (заместить) one another. According to different principles of similarity PR can be of three types: semantic, formal and functional. Semantic PR are based on the similarity of meaning: a book to read = a book for reading. Formal PR are based on the similarity of forms. Such relations exist between the members of a paradigm: man - men; play - played'- will play ~ is playing. Functional PR are based on the similarity of function. They are established between the elements that can occur in the same position.

The Oppositional Theory. The opposition – generalized correlation of lingual forms by means of which a certain function (weak or strong, voiced or voiced less) is expressed. According to the number of opposed members oppositions can be: Binary; More than binary (ternary, quaternary, etc.). Three main qualitative types of opposition: Privative (отрицательная) (based on a morph. differential feature which is presented in its strong (marked) member (+) and absent in its weak (unmarked) member (–), work (-) – worked (+).The differential feat. is the suffix. –(e)d); gradual (a contrastive pair or group of members which are distinguished not by the presence or absence of a feature but by the degree of it. big – bigger – biggest); equipollent (равноценный) (a contrastive pair or group in which the members are distinguished by different positive features. In morph. it is mostly confined to formal relations. am – is – are (correlation of the person forms of the verb to be)).

3. Classification of sounds of speech.

Consonants.

The first classification is manner of articulation which refers to how the sounds is produced and the way in which the airstream is modified as it passes through the vocal tract. According to the manner of articulation there are: 1. stop (is a cons characterized by complete obstruction of the outgoing airstream by the articulation, a built up of intraoral air pressure and a release – p, b, t, d, g, k); 2. fricative (is a cons produced by forcing the breath stream through a constriction formed by articulators in the vocal tract – f, v, th, TH, s, z, ш, ж, h); 3. affricative (is a cons characterized as having both a fricative and a stop manner of production – тч, дж); 4. nasal (refers to a cons produced with complete closure on the oral cavity along with a lowered velum to allow airflow through the nasal cavity – m, n, n (nasal)); 5. liquid (is a generic label used to classify two English approximant consonants – r, l); 6. glide (is a cons characterized by a continued, gliding motion of the articulators into the following vowel; also referred to as a semi-vowel, f.e. j, w).

Secondly, there is a division regarding with the place of articulation which refers to which articulators are involved in the production of particular sound. There are consonants: labio-dentals (are produced by the lower lip contacting the upper front teeth - f,v), lingua-dental (is produced with the tongue contacting the teeth - th, TH), lingua-alveolar (refers to a cons produced with tongue contacting the upper alveolar ridge - s, z, t, d, n, l), lingua-palatal (is produced with the tongue contacting the hard palate - ш, ж, r, j), glottal (is a place if articulation referring to a consonant that is produced by completely or partially constricting the glottis - h), bilabial (produced by contact of the upper and lower lips - p, b, m, w), lingua-velar (refers to a cons produced with the tongue contacting the velum - k, g, n(nasal)).

Thirdly, all the consonants can be divided by voicing. Voicing refers to whether the vocal folds are vibrating during a production of a particular consonant. There are: voiced (is produced with vibration of the adducted folds in the larynx - b, d, g, m, n) and voiceless (cons produced without vibration of the vocal folds - p, t, k, s, h).

Vowels.

Monophthongs are a sound of a single vowel: 1. Front (is produced with a forward shift of the tongue from its neutral or rest positin – i, e, бабочка); 2. Central (produced with the tongue in its neutral or rest position – a(домик), ё, э); 3. Back (produced with a backward shift of the tongue from its neutral or rest position – u, o, a). Diphthongs are two vowels produced consecutively in the same syllable by moving the articulators smoothly from the position of one to the other (ai, ou, oi).

4. Notion of phoneme and phonological system.

Phonology – the study of the sound system of the language. It studies only those contrasts in sounds, which make difference of meaning within the language. It investigates sounds as units, which serve communicative purposes. The unit – a phoneme. (linguistic level of speech chain). It a branch of phonetics that studies the linguistic function of consonant and vowel sounds, syllabic structure, word stress and prosodic features.

Phoneme – minimal abstract unit realized in speech in the form of speech sounds opposable to other phonemes.

- It’s a smallest unit of speech

- It distinguishes one word or word element from another.

- It’s an oppositional unit of speech.

Components of phonetic system: segmental phonemes; word stress; syllabic structure; intonation (4 components of intonation: pitch, loudness, tempo (prosodic components of intonation) timbre (not recognized unanimously, according to Sokolova) The role of intonation in speech: auditory level - realization of into in speech. Each syllable of speech has a special pitch coloring. The general function of intonation - is a communicative function. It differentiates informational content, text structure, meaning of lexical units, stylistic functions, attitude, statements\questions\commands etc.)

7. Lexical meaning, its structure, ways of its description, types of semantic change.

The lexical meaning of the word may be described as the component of meaning proper to the word as a linguistic unit, i.e. recurrent in all the forms of this word. Lexical meaning is not homogenous either and may be analysed as including denotational and connotational components. One of the functions of words is to denote things, concepts and so on. Users of a language cannot have any knowledge or thought of the objects or phenomena of the real world around them unless this knowledge is ultimately embodied in words which have essentially the same meaning for all speakers of that language. This is the denotational meaning, i.e. that component of the lexical meaning which makes communication possible. There is no doubt that a physicist knows more about the atom than a singer does, or that an arctic explorer possesses a much deeper knowledge of what arctic ice is like than a man who has never been in the North. Nevertheless they use the words atom, Arctic, etc. and understand each other. The second component of the lexical meaning is the connotational component, i.e. the emotive charge and the stylistic value of the word. Words contain an element of emotive evaluation as part of the connotational meaning; e.g. a hovel denotes ‘a small house or cottage’ and besides implies that it is a miserable dwelling place, dirty, in bad repair and in general unpleasant to live in. The emotive charge is one of the objective semantic features proper to words as linguistic units and forms part of the connotational component of meaning. It should not be confused with emotive implications that the words may acquire in speech. The emotive implication of the word is to a great extent subjective as it greatly depends of the personal experience of the speaker, the mental imagery the word evokes in him. Words seemingly devoid of any emotional element may possess in the case of individual speakers strong emotive implications as may be illustrated, e.g. by the word hospital. What is thought and felt when the word hospital is used will be different in the case of an architect who built it, the person staying there after an operation, or the man living across the road.

The factors accounting for semantic changes may be roughly subdivided into two groups: a) extra-linguistic and b) linguistic causes. By extra-linguistic causes we mean various changes in the life of the speech community, changes in economic and social structure, changes in ideas, scientific concepts, way of life and other spheres of human activities as reflected in word meanings. Although objects, institutions, concepts, etc. change in the course of time in many cases the soundform of the words which denote them is retained but the meaning of the words is changed. The word car, e.g., ultimately goes back to Latin carrus which meant ‘a four-wheeled wagon’ but now that other means of transport are used it denotes ‘a motor-car’, ‘a railway carriage’ (in the USA), ‘that portion of an airship, or balloon which is intended to carry personnel, cargo or equipment’.

Some changes of meaning are due to what may be described as purely linguistic causes, i.e. factors acting within the language system. The commonest form which this influence takes is the so-called ellipsis. In a phrase made up of two words one of these is omitted and its meaning is transferred to its partner. The verb to starve, e.g., in Old English had the meaning ‘to die’ and was habitually used in collocation with the word hunger. Already in the 16th century the verb itself acquired the meaning ‘to die of hunger’. Another linguistic cause is discrimination of synonyms which can be illustrated by the semantic development of a number of words. The word land, e.g., in Old English meant both ‘solid part of earth’s surface’ and ‘the territory of a nation’. When in the Middle English period the word country was borrowed as its synonym, the meaning of the word land was altered and ‘the territory of a nation’ came to be denoted mainly by the borrowed word country.

5. Phonetic change and sound laws.

Sound change includes any processes of language change that affect pronunciation (phonetic change) or word structures (phonemic change). Sound change can consist of the replacement of one speech sound by another, the complete loss of the affected sound, and (rarely) even the introduction of a new sound in a place where there previously was none. Of regular sound changes, the somewhat hyperbolic term sound law is also sometimes used. This term was introduced by the Neogrammarian school in the 19th century and is still commonly applied to some historically important sound changes, such as Grimm's law (it establishes a set of regular correspondences between early Germanic stops and fricatives and the stop consonants of certain other centum Indo-European languages).

Principles of sound change. The following statements are used as state of rules in formulating sound changes as understood within the Neogrammarian model. However, for modern linguistics, they are not taken as inviolable rules; rather, they are seen as guidelines: 1. Sound change has no memory: Sound change does not discriminate between the sources of a sound. If a previous sound change causes X,Y > Y (features X and Y merge as Y), a new one cannot affect only original X's. 2. Sound change ignores grammar: A sound change can only have phonological constraints, like X > Z in unstressed syllables. It cannot drop final W, except on adjectives, or the like. The only exception to this is that a sound change may or may not recognise word boundaries, even when they are not indicated by prosodic clues. 3. Sound change is unstoppable: All languages vary from place to place and time to time, and neither writing nor media prevent this change.

Terms for changes in pronunciation. Assimilation: One sound becomes more like another, or (much more rarely) two sounds become more like each other. Example: in Latin the prefix *kom- becomes con- before an apical stop ([t d]) or [n]: contactus "touched", condere "to found, establish", connūbium "legal marriage". Metathesis: Two sounds switch places. Example: Old English thridda became Middle English third; English comfortable pronounced as if spelled comfterble. Haplology: The loss of a syllable when an adjacent (смежный, расп рядом) syllable is similar or (rarely) identical. Example: Old English Anglaland became Modern English England, or the common pronunciation of probably as ['prɒblɪ]. This change usually affects commonly used words. The word haplology itself is sometimes jokingly pronounced "haplogy". Elision, Aphaeresis, Syncope, and Apocope: All losses of sounds. Elision is the loss of unstressed sounds, aphaeresis the loss of initial sounds, apocope is the loss of final sounds, and syncope is the loss of medial sounds. Elision examples: in the southeastern United States, unstressed schwas (нейтральные гласные) tend to drop, so "American" is not /əˈmɛɹəkən/ but /ˈmɚkən/. Standard English is possum < opossum. Syncope examples: the loss of /t/ in English soften, hasten, castle, etc. Apocope examples: the final -e [ə] in Middle English words was pronounced, but is only retained in spelling as silent E.

6. Semantic triangle. Denotation and connotation.

Connotation is the pragmatic communicative value the word receives depending on where, when, how, by whom, for what purpose and in what contexts it may be used. There are four main types of connotations stylistic, emotional, evaluative and expressive or intensifying. Stylistic connotations is what the word conveys about the speaker's attitude to the social circumstances and the appropriate functional style (slay vs kill), evaluative connotation may show his approval or disapproval of the object spoken of (clique vs group), emotional connotation conveys the speaker's emotions (mummy vs mother), the degree of intensity (adore vs love) is conveyed by expressive or intensifying connotation.

The interdependence of connotations with denotative meaning is also different for different types of connotations. Thus, for instance, emotional connotation comes into being on the basis of denotative meaning but in the course of time may substitute it by other types of connotation with general emphasis, evaluation and colloquial stylistic overtone. E.g. terrific which originally meant 'frightening' is now a colloquialism meaning 'very, very good' or 'very great': terrific beauty, terrific pleasure.

Denotation. The conceptual content of a word is expressed in its denotative meaning. To denote is to serve as a linguistic expression for a concept or as a name for an individual object. It is the denotational meaning that makes communication possible.

Semantic triangle. All major works on semantic theory have so far been based on referential concepts of meaning. The essential feature of this approach is that it distinguishes between the three components closely connected with meaning: the sound-form of the linguistic sign, the concept underlying this sound-form, and the actual referent, i.e. that part or that aspect of reality to which the linguistic sign refers. The best known referential model of meaning is the so-called “basic triangle” which, with some variations, underlies the semantic systems of all the adherents of this school of thought. In a simplified form the triangle may be represented as shown below:

As can be seen from the diagram the sound-form of the linguistic sign, e.g. [dAv], is connected with our concept of the bird which it denotes and through it with the referent, i.e. the actual bird.¹ The common feature of any referential approach is the implication that meaning is in some form or other connected with the referent.

8. Word in the lexical system – polysemy and homonymy. Sources of homonyms.

Homonyms are the words which is identical in sound and spelling or at least in one of these aspects, but different in their meanings (bank, n – a shore; bank, n – an institution). English vocabulary is rich in such pairs and even groups of words. If synonyms and antonyms can be regarded as the treasure of the language’s expressive resources homonyms may lead to confusion or misunderstanding. But it is this very characteristic which makes them one of the most important sources of humor. Homonyms which are the same in sound and spelling are termed homonyms proper. Homophones are homonyms which are the same in sound but different in spelling (bean – боб; been – 3 форма глагола to be). Homographs are words which are the same in spelling, but different in sound (lead, v [li:d] – управлять; lead, n [led] – свинец). Sources of homonyms are as follows: 1) Phonetic changes; 2) Borrowings; 3) Word-building. Classification of homonyms: Acc to Prof Smirnizkii they are subdivided into full homonyms and partial homonyms. Full lexical homonyms are words which represent the same category of part of speech and have the same paradigm (match, n – матч; match, n – спичка). Partial homonyms are subdivided into 3 subgroups: 1) Simple lexico-grammatical partial homonyms are words which belong to the same category of part of speech and have one identical form (lay, v – infinitive; lay, v – Past Indefinite of the verb to lie); 2) Complex lexico-grammatical partial homonyms are words of different categories of parts of speech which have one identical form (rose, n – flower; rose, v – Past Indefinite of the verb to rise); 3) Partial lexical homonyms are words of the same category of part of speech which are identical only in their corresponding forms (to can, v – консервировать; can, v – modal verb).

A word having several meanings is called polysemantic, and the ability of words to have more than one meaning is described by the term polysemy. Most English words are polysemantic. The wealth of expressive resources of a language largely depends on the degree to which polysemy has developed in the language. On the other hand, the number of sound combinations that human speech organs can produce is limited. Therefore at a certain stage of language development the production of new words by morphological means becomes limited, and polysemy becomes increasingly important in providing the means for enriching the vocabulary. From this, it should be clear that the process of enriching the vocabulary does not consist merely in adding new words to it, but, also, in the constant development of polysemy. The system of meanings of any polysemantic word develops gradually, mostly over the centuries, as more and more new meanings are either added to old ones, or oust some of them.

9. Synonyms, antonyms, taboos, euphemisms.

Synonymy is one of the modern linguistics’ most controversial problems. The duality of synonyms is their most confusing feature. They are somewhat the same and yet they are obviously different. Their function in speech is revealing different aspects, shades and variations of the same phenomenon. Synonyms are words of the same category of part of speech conveying the same concept, but different either in shades of meaning or in stylistic characteristics. The only existing classification system for synonyms was established by Academician V.V.Vinogradov: there are 3 types of synonyms: 1. ideographic (words conveying the same concept, but different in the shades of meaning); 2. stylistic (words different in stylistic characteristics); 3. absolute (once coincide in all their shades of meaning and in all their stylistic characteristics). A more modern approach to the classification of synonyms may be based on the definition of synonyms as words differing in connotations: 1. the connotation of degree or intensity (to surprise- to astonish – to amaze – to astound; to like – to admire – to love – to adore – to worship) 2. the connotation of duration (to stare – to glare – to gaze – to glance – to peep – to peer); 3. the emotive connotation (e.g. alone – single – lonely – solitary); 4. the evaluative connotation (conveys the speaker’s attitude labeling it as good or bad: well-known – famous – notorious –celebrated); 5. the causative connotation: (to sparkle (сиять(глаза) положительные эмоции) – to glitter (блестят, но эмоции отрицательные); to shiver (with cold, from a chill, because of a frost) – to shudder (with fear)); 6. the connotation of manner (to stroll – to stride – to trot – to pace – to swagger – to stagger. All these synonyms denote different ways and types of walking encoded in their semantic structure: the length of space, tempo, gait, carriage, purposefulness or lack of purpose); 7. the connotation of attendant circumstances (to peep smb. – through a hole, from behind a screen, a half-closed door, a newspaper, a fan, a curtain); 8. the connotation of attendant features (pretty – handsome – beautiful); 9. stylistic connotation (to leave – to be off – to clear out(col.) – to beat it – to hoof it – to take the air (col.) – to depart – to retire – to withdraw (formal)). All or at least most synonymic groups have a central word whose meaning is equal denotation common to all the synonymic groups. This word is called the dominant synonym (to produce – to create – to fabricate –to make – to manufacture). The following characteristic features of the dominant synonym can be underlined:1. high-frequency of usage; 2. broad combinability (ability to be used in combination with various classes of words); 3. broad general meaning; 4. lack of connotation.

Antonyms are words of the same category of parts of speech which have contrasting meanings such as hot-cold. They usually appear in pairs, but a polysemantic word may have an antonym for each of its meanings (light-heavy, light-dark). Antonymy is not evenly distributed among the categories of parts of speech. Most antonyms are adjectives which is quite natural because qualitative characteristics are easily compared and contrasted. Verbs take second place (to lose-to find). Nouns are not rich in antonyms(friend-enemy). Antonymic adverbs can be subdivided into 2 groups: a) adverbs derives from adjective (warmly-coldly); b) adverbs proper (now-then, here-there). Together with synonyms antonyms represent the language’s important expressive means. Authors often use antonyms as a stylistic device of contrast.

There are words in every language which people instinctively avoid because they are considered indecent, indelicate, rude, direct or impolite. They are often described in a round – about way by using substitutes, called euphemisms (lavatory – powder-room, washroom, restroom, retiring-room, (public) comfort station, lady’s (room), gentlemen’s (room), water-closed, W.C., public conveniences, toilet, wind-sort castle). Euphemism may be used due to genuine concern not to hurt someone’s feelings (a stupid person can be said to be not exactly brilliant). Euphemisms are used to avoid the so-called social taboos. Superstitious taboos have their roots in the distant past of mankind, when people believed there was a supernatural link between a name and the object or creature it represented (devil – the Prince of Darkness, the Black One, the evil one, dickens (col.), dince (col.), (Old) Nick(col.)). People are not superstitious nowadays and yet they are reluctant to use the verb “to die” which has a long chain of both solemn and humorous substitutes: to pass a way, to be taken, to breathe one’s last, to depart this life, to close one’s eyes, to yield (give) up the ghost, to go the way off all flash, to kick off(slang), to check out(slang), to keep the basket(slang)).

10. Tropes. Metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche.

Trope: The use of a word, phrase, or image in a way not intended by its normal signification. A metaphor is the interaction between the logical and contextual logical meanings of a word which is based on a likeness between objects and implies analogy and comparison between them. Similar to all lexical stylistic devices M may be genuine, that is original, invented by the writer, or trite, that is hackneyed (банальная), often used in the language. The M suggests an analogy. An implied analogy and likeness to concrete objects makes abstract ideas more concrete, complex ideas more simple and the thoughts more comprehensible. The M may be expressed through nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. The noun M may consist of one word or may have an attribute in the form of an “of-phrase”. The verb-M is very emphatic as it throws the metaphorical light on the subject of the sentence too. M-s expressed by adjectives and adverbs are called metaphorical epithets and will be dealt with in the chapter on the epithet. Sometimes a metaphor is not confined to one image. The writer finds it necessary to prolong the image by adding a number of other images, but all these additional images are linked with the main, central image. Such metaphors are called sustained or prolonged metaphors (But there was no May morning in his cowardly human heart).

A different type of interaction between logical and contextual logical meanings is called metonymy. It is based on definite relations between the object implied and the object named. The interaction between the logical and the contextual meanings of the words is based on close relations objectively existing between the part and the body itself. In metonymy relations between the object named and the object implied are various and numerous. Here are the most frequent types of relations: 1) The relations that exist between an instrument and the action it performs (or between an organ of the body and its function). 2) The relations that exist between an article of clothing and the person wearing it. 3) The relations that exist between the symbol and the phenomenon it symbolized. Apart from this group of metonymies some other trite types of metonymies should be mentioned – that is metonymies based on very close, common relations between objects. They are: a) The relations between the creator and his creation. b) The relations between the material and the thing made of it. c) The relations between the singular and the plural. This type of metonymy is called synecdochy. The stylistic effect of trite metonymies is in most cases weak. Metonymy as a genuine stylistic device is used to achieve concreteness of description. By giving a specific detail connected with the phenomenon, the author evokes a concrete and life-like image and reveals certain feelings of his own. By mentioning only one seemingly insignificant feature or detail connected with the phenomenon the author draws the reader’s attention to it and makes him see the character he describes as he himself sees it. (Then a pause, as the bonnet and dress neared the top of the Square).

Synecdoche: A trope in which a part stands for the whole. Example: "Tom just bought a fancy new set of wheels." There are types of synechdoche: a term denoting a part of something is used to refer to the whole thing ("The ship was lost with all hands [sailors]"; "mouths to feed" for hungry people, "white hair" for an elderly person, "the press" for news media; Britain - UK), a term denoting a thing (a "whole") is used to refer to part of it ("Use your head [brain] to figure it out."), a term denoting a specific class of thing is used to refer to a larger, more general class ("coke" for pop/soda, "castle" for home, "meat" or "bread" for food), a term denoting a general class of thing is used to refer to a smaller, more specific class, a term denoting a material is used to refer to an object composed of that material ("willow" for cricket bat, "copper" for penny, "roof" for a house, "boards" for stage, "ivories" for piano keys, "plastic" for credit card, "the hardwood" for a gym floor, "pigskin" for football).

The use of synecdoche is a common way to emphasize an important aspect of a fictional character; for example, a character might be consistently described by a single body part, such as the eyes, which come to represent the character. This is often used when the main character does not know or care about the names of the characters that he/she is referring to.

11. Set expressions and their types.

Phraseology: word-groups with transferred meanings. Phraseological units, or idioms, represent the most picturesque, colorful and expressive part of the language’s vocabulary. There are some other terms denoting more or less the same linguistic phenomenon: set expressions, set phrases, fixed word-groups, collocations. The confusions in terminology reflects insufficiency of reliable criteria by which phraseological units can be distinguished from free word-groups. There are two major criteria: semantic and structure. Professor A.V. Koonin defines a phraseological unit “as a stable word-group characterized by a completely or partially transferred meaning”. This definition suggests that the degree of semantic change in a phraseological unit may vary. 1. the following phraseological units represent the first case: e.g. to skate on thin ice – to put oneself in a dangerous position (рисковать); to have one’s heart in one’s mouth – to be greatly alarmed but what is expected to happen (быть очень напуганным = душа в пятки ушла). 2. the second type is represented by phraseological units in which one of the components preserves the current meaning and the other is used in a transferred meaning: e.g. to lose(to keep) one’s temper - выйти из себя (владеть собой). 3.The term “idiom” is mostly applied to phraseological units with completely transferred meaning, that is to the ones in which the meaning of the whole unit does not correspond to the current meaning of the components.

The structural criterion also brings forth distinctive features characterizing phraseological units and contrasting them to free word-groups. The structural invariability is an essential feature of phraseological units. Structural invariability finds expression in a number of restrictions: Restriction in substitution. No word can be substituted for any meaningful component of a phraseological unit without destroying it: e.g. to carry coal to Newcastle (but not to Manchester), (возить товар туда, где его и без того много; ехать в Тулу со своим самоваром; заниматься бессмысленным делом). Restriction in introducing any edition components. (to have his heart in his boots (испытывать чувство безнадёжности, впасть в уныние)).

Proverbs are different from phraseological units. If viewed in their structural aspect, they are sentences. In their semantic aspect proverbs could be best compared with minute fables, because they sum up the collective experience of the community. They moralize (hell is paved with good intensions), give advise (don’t judge a tree by its bark), then criticize (everyone calls his own geese swans). No phraseological unit ever does any of these things. Phraseological unit’s function in speech is purely nominative. They denote an object, an act etc. The functions of proverbs in speech is communicative. They give certain information. Phraseology principals of classification. The classification system, made by the academician V.V.Vinogradov, is the first classification system which is based on the semantic principal. This classification is founded on the degree of the semantic cohesion between the components of the phraseological unit. Vinogradov classifies phraseological units into 3 classes: 1. phraseological combinations (word-groups with the partially changed meaning. The meaning of the unit can be easily deduced from the meaning of its constituency (to be good at smth. - преуспевать)); 2. unities (word-groups with completely changed meanings. That is the meanings of the unit do not correspond to the meanings of its constituent part. So, the meaning of the unit can not be deduced from the meaning of the constituent parts (to sit on the fence – in discations or politics to reframe from committing oneself to either side)); 3. fusions (word-groups with completely changed meaning (to show the white feather – to betray one’s cowardice (проявлять трусость))).

12. Etymology. Ways of word building.

By etymology of words their origin is understood. English vocabulary which is one of the most extensive in the world contains a lot of words of foreign origin. In the first century B.C. the Romans brought the names of milk products and planes. For example, cherry, pear, plum, beet, pepper, cup, kitchen. The fifth century A.D. the Angles and Saxons assimilated such Celtic words as down, druid, bard, cradle, London. The seventh century A.D. brought such Latin borrowings as priest, bishop, monk, nun, candle and educational terms (school, magister). Then the 8^th-11^th century are characterized by Scandinavian borrowings such as take, call, cast, die, husband. It is easy to recognize Scandinavian borrowings by the initial sk: sky, skill, skin, ski, skirt. In 1066 England was defeated by William the Conqueror and the English language borrowed administrative words (state, government, parliament, council), legal terms (court, judge, justice, crime), military terms (army, war, soldier, officer, battle), educational terms (pupil, lesson, library, science), everyday life words (table, plate, dinner, supper). The Renaissance Period was marked by Greek and Latin borrowings. They were abstract words (major, minor, intelligent), then scientific and artistic words (datum, status, phenomena, philosophy). Some borrowings came from so-called Parisian dialect (regime, routine, police, machine, ballet). Reasons for borrowings are contact, wars, invasions, conquest, trade, cultural relations. Sometimes it is done to fill the gap in the vocabulary. It may be a word that expresses more peculiar concept. This type of borrowings enlarges the group of synonyms. For example, Latin “cordial” – Native “friendly”; Latin “admire” – French “adore”.

Word-building. Derived words (affixes= prefixes+suffixes); Root words; Conversed words; Compound words; Neutral (shopwindow). 1) Affixless stems (blackbird); 2) Derived (absent-mindedness); 3) Contracted (TV-set); 4) Morphological (Anglo-Saxon); 5) Syntactic (lily-of-the-valley); 6) Shortening or contraction.

So word-building is understood as processes of producing new words from the resources of this particular language. Together with borrowing word-building provides for enlarging and enriching the vocabulary of the language. Words are divisible into smaller units – morphemes. They do not occur as free forms but only as constituents of words. Yet they possess meaning of their own (reddish, overwrite). All morphemes are subdivided into roots and affixes. Affixes fall into prefixes (unwell) and suffixes. Words which consist of a root and an affix or several affixes are called derived words or derivatives and are produced by the process of affixation. Root words have only a root morpheme in their structure (room, street). Conversion is a type of modern English word-building when a word from one part of speech is transformed into another part of speech (to hand – a hand). Compound words consisting of 2 or more stems (mother-in-law). Shortenings or contraction are words produced by shortening (laboratory – lab). 4 types of words (root words, derived words, compound words and shortenings) represent the main structural types of Modern English words. Conversion, derivation and composition are the most productive ways of word-building. Composition is one the most productive types of word-building in Modern English. Traditionally 3 types of compounds are distinguished: neutral, morphological and syntactic. In neutral compounds the process of compounds is realized without any linking elements (blackbird, shopwindow). Morphological are few and number. This type is non-productive, when 2 stems are combined by a linking vowel or consonant. Syntactic compounds represent specifically English word structure. They are formed from segments of speech describing typical relations (lily-of-the-valley). Less productive ways of word-building: shortening=contraction: phone = telephone; vac = vacation; hols = holidays; ads = advertisements; BBC = British Broadcasting Corporation. Minor types of modern word-building: sound imitation (dogs: bark, howl; cock: cock-a-doodle-doo; duck: quacks) and reduplication (bye-bye).

13. Development of vocabulary. Development of semantic structure of words. Neologisms. Interaction of languages: borrowing and loans.

A neologism is a word, term, or phrase that has been recently created (or "coined"), often to apply to new concepts, to synthesize pre-existing concepts, or to make older terminology sound more contemporary. Neologisms are especially useful in identifying inventions, new phenomena, or old ideas that have taken on a new cultural context. Neologisms are by definition "new", and as such are often directly attributable to a specific individual, publication, period, or event. The term "neologism" was itself coined around 1800, so in the early 19th century, the word "neologism" was itself a neologism. Neologisms tend to occur more often in cultures which are rapidly changing, and also in situations where there is easy and fast propagation of information. They are often created by combining existing words or by giving words new and unique suffixes or prefixes. Neologisms can also be created through abbreviation or acronym. Neologisms often become popular through memetics – by way of mass media, the Internet, word of mouth. Every word in a language was, at some time, a neologism, ceasing to be such through time and acceptance. Neologisms often become accepted parts of the language. Other times, however, they disappear from common usage. Whether a neologism continues as part of the language depends on acceptance by the public and acceptance by linguistic experts. When a word or phrase is no longer "new", it is no longer a neologism. Neologisms may take decades to become "old", however. Newly created words entering a language tend to pass through stages that can be described as: Unstable - Extremely new, being proposed, or being used only by a small subculture (also known as protologisms); Diffused - Having reached a significant audience, but not yet having gained widespread acceptance; Stable - Having gained recognizable and probably lasting acceptance; Dated - The point where the word has ceased holding novelty and has passed into cliché, formal linguistic acceptance, or become culturally dated in its use.

In the first century B.C. the Romans brought the names of milk products and planes. For example, cherry, pear, plum, beet, pepper, cup, kitchen. The fifth century A.D. the Angles and Saxons assimilated such Celtic words as down, druid, bard, cradle, London. The seventh century A.D. brought such Latin borrowings as priest, bishop, monk, nun, candle and educational terms (school, magister). Then the 8^th-11^th century are characterized by Scandinavian borrowings such as take, call, cast, die, husband. It is easy to recognize Scandinavian borrowings by the initial sk: sky, skill, skin, ski, skirt. In 1066 England was defeated by William the Conqueror and the English language borrowed administrative words (state, government, parliament, council), legal terms (court, judge, justice, crime), military terms (army, war, soldier, officer, battle), educational terms (pupil, lesson, library, science), everyday life words (table, plate, dinner, supper). The Renaissance Period was marked by Greek and Latin borrowings. They were abstract words (major, minor, intelligent), then scientific and artistic words (datum, status, phenomena, philosophy). Some borrowings came from so-called Parisian dialect (regime, routine, police, machine, ballet). Reasons for borrowings are contact, wars, invasions, conquest, trade, cultural relations. Sometimes it is done to fill the gap in the vocabulary. It may be a word that expresses more peculiar concept. This type of borrowings enlarges the group of synonyms. For example, Latin “cordial” – Native “friendly”; Latin “admire” – French “adore”.

Loans. The term loan - word is equivalent to borrowing. By translation-loans we indicate borrowings of a special kind. They are not taken into the vocabulary of another language more or less in the same phonemic shape in which they have been functioning in their own language, but undergo the process of translation. It is quite obvious that it is only compound words (i. e. words of two or more stems) which can be subjected to such an operation, each stem being translated separately: masterpiece (from Germ. Meisterstück), wonder child (from Germ. Wunderkind), first dancer (from Ital. prima-ballerina), collective farm (from R. колхоз), five-year plan (from R. пятилетка).

14. Grammatical meaning and grammatical categories.

Word-forms, such as girls, winters, joys, tables, etc. though denoting widely different objects of reality have something in common. This common element is the grammatical meaning of plurality which can be found in all of them. Thus grammatical meaning may be defined, as the component of meaning recurrent in identical sets of individual forms of different words, as, e.g., the tense meaning in the word-forms of verbs (asked, thought, walked, etc.) or the case meaning in the word-forms of various nouns (girl’s, boy’s, night’s, etc.). In modern linguistic science it is commonly held that some elements of grammatical meaning can be identified by the position of the linguistic unit in relation to other linguistic units, i.e. by its distribution. Word-forms speaks, reads, writes have one and the same grammatical meaning as they can all be found in identical distribution, e.g. only after the pronouns he, she, it and before adverbs like well, badly, to-day, etc. It follows that a certain component of the meaning of a word is described when you identify it as a part of speech, since different parts of speech are distributionally different (cf. my work and I work). [gender, number. mood]

Grammatical categories are made up by the unity of that have the meanings have the same form (e.g. singular::plural). Due to dialectal unity of language and thought, grammatical categories correlate, on the one hand, with the conceptual categories and, on the other hand, with the objective reality. It follows that we may define grammatical categories as references of the corresponding, obiective categories. For example, the objective category of time finds its representation in the grammatical category of tense, the objective category of quantity finds its representation in the grammatical category of number. Those grammatical categories that have references in the objective reality are called referential grammatical categories. To this type belong the categories of mood and degree. Speaking about the grammatical category of mood we can say that it has modality as its conceptual correlate. It can be explained by the fact that it does not refer to anything in the objective reality - it expresses the speaker's attitude to what he says. The relation between two grammatical forms differing in meaning and external signs is called opposition -book::books (unmarked member/marked member). All grammatical categories find their realization through oppositions, e.g. the grammatical category of number is realized through the opposition singular::plural.

15. Morpheme. Morphological structure of the word. Ways of expressing grammatical meaning.

There are two levels of approach to the study of word-structure: the level of morphemic analysis and the level of derivational or word-formation analysis. Word is the principal and basic unit of the language system, the largest on the morphologic and the smallest on the syntactic plane of linguistic analysis. It has been universally acknowledged that a great many words have a composite nature and are made up of morphemes, the basic units on the morphemic level, which are defined as the smallest indivisible two-facet language units. The morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of form. A form in these cases a recurring discrete unit of speech. Morphemes occur in speech only as constituent parts of words, not independently, although a word may consist of single morpheme. Even a cursory examination of the morphemic structure of English words reveals that they are composed of morphemes of different types: root-morphemes and affixational morphemes. Words that consist of a root and an affix are called derived words or derivatives and are produced by the process of word building known as affixation (or derivation). The root-morpheme is the lexical nucleus of the word; it has a very general and abstract lexical meaning common to a set of semantically related words constituting one word-cluster ((to) teach, teacher, teaching). Besides the lexical meaning root-morphemes possess all other types of meaning proper to morphemes except the part-of-speech meaning which is not found in roots. Affixational morphemes include inflectional affixes or inflections and derivational affixes. Inflections carry only grammatical meaning and are thus relevant only for the formation of word-forms. Derivational affixes are relevant for building various types of words. They are lexically always dependent on the root which they modify. They possess the same types of meaning as found in roots, but unlike root-morphemes most of them have the part-of-speech meaning which makes them structurally the important part of the word as they condition the lexico-grammatical class the word belongs to. Due to this component of their meaning the derivational affixes are classified into affixes building different parts of speech: nouns, verbs, adjectives or adverbs. Roots and derivational affixes are generally easily distinguished and the difference between them is clearly felt as, e.g., in the words helpless, handy, blackness, Londoner, refill: the root-morphemes help-, hand-, black-, London-, fill-, are understood as the lexical centers of the words, and –less, -y, -ness, -er, re- are felt as morphemes dependent on these roots. Distinction is also made of free and bound morphemes. Free morphemes coincide with word-forms of independently functioning words. It is obvious that free morphemes can be found only among roots, so the morpheme boy- in the word boy is a free morpheme; in the word undesirable there is only one free morpheme desire-; the word pen-holder has two free morphemes pen- and hold-. It follows that bound morphemes are those that do not coincide with separate word- forms, consequently all derivational morphemes, such as –ness, -able, -er are bound. Root-morphemes may be both free and bound. The morphemes theor- in the words theory, theoretical, or horr- in the words horror, horrible, horrify; Angl- in Anglo-Saxon; Afr- in Afro-Asian are all bound roots as there are no identical word-forms. It should also be noted that morphemes may have different phonemic shapes. In the word-cluster please, pleasing , pleasure , pleasant the phonemic shapes of the word stand in complementary distribution or in alternation with each other. All the representations of the given morpheme, that manifest alternation are called allomorphs /or morphemic variants/ of that morpheme. This form is used to denote elements of a group whose members together consistute a structural unit of the language (allophones, allomorphs). Thus, for example, -ion/ -tion/ -sion/ -ation are the positional variants of the same suffix, they do not differ in meaning or function but show a slight difference in sound form depending on the final phoneme of the preceding stem. They are considered as variants of one and the same morpheme and called its allomorphs.