ГОС по анг.яз / ShPOR_BILET

16. Parts of speech and criteria of their division.

The words of language, depending on various formal and semantic features, are divided into grammatically relevant sets or classes. The tra­ditional grammatical classes of words are called "parts of speech". Since the word is distinguished not only by grammatical, but also by semanti-co-lexemic properties, some scholars refer to parts of speech as "lexico-grammatical" series of words, or as "lexico-grammatical categories". In modern linguistics, parts of speech are discriminated on the basis of the three criteria: "semantic", "formal", and "functional". The se­mantic criterion presupposes the evaluation of the generalized meaning, which is characteristic of all the subsets of words constituting a given part of speech. This meaning is understood as the "categorial meaning of the part of speech". The formal criterion provides for the exposition of the specific inflexional and derivational (word-building) features of all the lexemic subsets of a part of speech. The functional criterion concerns the syntactic role of words in the sentence typical of a part of speech. The said three factors of categorial characterization of words are conven­tionally referred to as, respectively, "meaning", "form", and "function". In accord with the described criteria, words on the upper level of classification are divided into notional and functional, which reflects their division in the earlier grammatical tradition into changeable and un­changeable. To the notional parts of speech of the English language belong the noun, the adjective, the numeral, the pronoun, the verb, the adverb. The features of the noun within the identificational triad "meaning -form - function" are, correspondingly, the following: 1) the categorial meaning of substance ("thingness"); 2) the changeable forms of number and case; the specific suffixal forms of derivation (prefixes in English do not discriminate parts of speech as such); 3) the substantive functions in the sentence (subject, object, substantival predicative); prepositional con­nections; modification by an adjective. The features of the adjective:1) the categorial meaning of property (qualitative and relative); 2) the forms of the degrees of comparison (for qualitative adjectives); the specific suffixal forms of derivation; 3) adjec­tival functions in the sentence (attribute to a noun, adjectival predica­tive).The features of the numeral:1) the categorial meaning of number (cardinal and ordinal); 2) the narrow set of simple numerals; the specific forms of composition for compound numerals; the specific suffixal forms of derivation for ordinal numerals; 3) the functions of numerical attribute and numerical substantive. The features of the pronoun:1) the categorial meaning of indication (deixis); 2) the narrow sets of various status with the corresponding formal properties of categorial changeability and word-building; 3) the substan­tival and adjectival functions for different sets. The features of the verb:1) the categorial meaning of process (pre­sented in the two upper series of forms, respectively, as finite process and non-finite process); 2) the forms of the verbal categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, mood; the opposition of the finite and non-finite forms; 3) the function of the finite predicate for the finite verb; the mixed verbal - other than verbal functions for the non-finite verb. The features of the adverb 1) the categorial meaning of the second­ary property, i.e. the property of process or another property; 2) the forms of the degrees of comparison for qualitative adverbs; the specific suffixal forms of derivation; 3) the functions of various adverbial modi­fiers.

Contrasted against the notional parts of speech are words of incom­plete nominative meaning and non-self-dependent, mediatory functions in the sentence. These are functional parts of speech. On the principle of "generalized form" only unchangeable words are traditionally treated under the heading of functional parts of speech. As for their individual forms as such, they are simply presented by the list, since the number of these words is limited, so that they needn't be iden­tified on any general, operational scheme. To the basic functional series of words in English belong the article, the preposition, the conjunction, the particle, the modal word, the inter­jection. The article expresses the specific limitation of the substantive func­tions. The preposition expresses the dependencies and interdependencies of substantive referents. The conjunction expresses connections of phenomena. The particle unites the functional words of specifying and limiting meaning. To this series, alongside other specifying words, should be re­ferred verbal postpositions as functional modifiers of verbs, etc. The modal word, occupying in the sentence a more pronounced or less pronounced detached position, expresses the attitude of the speaker to the reflected situation and its parts. Here belong the functional words of probability {probably; perhaps, etc.), of qualitative evaluation {fortu­nately, unfortunately, luckily, etc.), and also of affirmation and negation. The interjection, occupying a detached position in the sentence, is a signal of emotions.

17. Disputable questions of grammar. Gender and case, moods and tenses in English.

Gender of nouns in modern Eng. Some grammarians consider that there are 3 genders in modern Eng: the neuter (i.e. non-person) gender, the masculine (i.e. masculine person) gender, the feminine (i.e. feminine person) gender (Kobrina, Blokh). English nouns can show the sex by means of being combined with certain notional words used as sex indicators, or by suffixal derivation. Cf.: boy-friend, girl-friend; man-producer, woman-producer; washer-man, washer-woman; landlord, landlady; bull-calf, cow-calf; cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow; he-bear, she-bear; master, mistress; actor, actress; executor, executrix; lion, lioness; sultan, sultana; etc Other grammarians deny the existence of gender in modern Eng (Chernobrov, Arakin, Ivanova). There are no gender in modern Eng because there are no morphological index of gender. F.e. in Latin there are morphological index of gender (dura – суровая, durus - суровый). But some nouns are referred to as females (airplane, car, England, cow). But it’s semantic gender, not grammatical.

Case in Eng nouns. Case indicates the relations of the noun (or pronoun) to the other words in the sentence. There is no universal point of view as to the case system in English. Different scholars stick to a different number of cases. Four theories of cases: 1^st theory of positional cases (John (nominative и.п. case) gave Mary (dative д.п.) a book (accusative в.п.): John! (vocative зват.)); 2^nd theory of prepositional cases (of – genitive р.п.; by – instrumental твор.п.; to - dative); 3^rd theory of two cases (Blokh, Kobrina; these cases are nominative and genitive or common (и.п.) and possessive (р.п.)); 4^th theory of zero cases (Chern., Ivanova, Arakin; the possessive form is not a case form. Possesion is a separate category, f.e. голос его любимой старшей дочери – his favorite elder daughter’s voice – one ending for 4 words).

Mood. Moscow school (Arakin; indicative изъяв. – I go; Imperative – Go; Subjunctive I (God, save the queen); Subjunctive II (If I were a blue bird); Conditional (I would fly to…); Suppositional предположительное (Should he come some other day)). Leningrad school (Кобрина, Ильинш; Subjunctive I = Pr Subj; Subj II = Past Subj; other moods are called analytical).

Tense. The material world exists in time and space and these 2 most important notions are reflected in human thinking and through it in the language. Grammatical tense is a way languages express the time at which an event described by a sentence occurs. In English, this is a property of a verb form, and expresses only time-related information. There are prospective (future tenses – f. in the past, f perf) tenses and retrospective (past tenses – f in the past, past perf). Dependent (are tenses that can not stay alone – He said he would come to school) tenses and Independent tenses (are tenses that can stand alone – I go to school).

18. Word groups and their types. Types of relations in word groups.

Types of word groups: 1. Coordinate (a boy and a girl); 2. Subordinate (clever girl: “girl” – nuclear word; “clever” – subordinate, dependent word). Types of relations between words: 1. Concord (согласование); 2. Government (управление). One of typological difference between Russian and English language is that concord in Eng is very rare in comparison to Rus (this girl – these girls). Government is a type of relation when the nuclear word governs the dependent word. The nuclear word is usually a verb, f.e. hope for the best, multiply by two.

19. Sentence. Communicative types of sentence. Sentence and utterance. Theory of speech acts.

The sentence is the immediate integral unit of speech built up of words according to a definite syntactic pattern and distinguished by a contextually relevant communicative purpose. Thus, it is more preferable to describe a sentence than to define it. The main peculiar features of the sentence are: integrity, syntactic independence, grammatical completeness, semantic completeness, communicative completeness, communicative functioning, predicativity, modality, intonational completeness. Classification of sentences: 1. According to structural features: simple and composite; two-member and one- member sentences. Elliptical and one-member sentences (Marvelous! Horrible! How very interesting!; No birds singing at the dawn (Strong resemblance to 2 member sentences); I saw him there. Yesterday (parselation)); 2. According to the purpose of the utterance: declarative (immediately expresses a certain proposition), interrogative (expresses an inquiry about information which the speaker does not possess), imperative (based on a proposition, without formulating it directly), exclamatory. Communicative Types of Sentences. The sentence is a communicative unit, therefore primary classification of sentence must be based on the communicative principle - the purpose of communication. Traditional grammar recognized three cardinal sentence-types: the declarative sentence expresses a statement, either affirmative or negative; the imperative sentence expresses inducement, either affirmative or negative; the interrogative sentence expresses a question, i.e. request for information wanted by the speaker from the listener. Interrogative sentences are subdivided into general questions and special questions, disjunctive questions and alternative questions. The last 2 types of questions may be treated as variants of the first 2 types. The general question is that one in which the relations between the subject and the predicate are questioned. Such questions require a positive or negative answer (yes - no). In special questions we ask about some definite or specific information, which is marked by the interrogative pronoun or adverb, (d) the exclamatory sentence. An utterance (выражение в словах, произнесение) is a complete unit of speech in spoken language. It can be represented and delineated in written language in many ways. Note that utterances do not exist in written language, only their representations do. Notions: the act of uttering; vocal expression; the power of speaking; speech (as long as I have utterance); a manner of speaking (argued with forceful utterance); Something uttered or expressed; a statement. [speech: words, comment, opinion, remark, expression, announcement, observation, declaration, reflection, speaking: voicing, expression, breathing, articulation, vocalization]. Speech act is a technical term in linguistics and the philosophy of language. In the course of performing speech acts we ordinarily communicate with each other. The content of communication may be identical, or almost identical, with the content intended to be communicated, as when a speaker asks a family member to wash the dishes by asking, "Could you please do the dishes?" However, the meaning of the linguistic means used may also be different from the content intended to be communicated. I may, in appropriate circumstances, request Peter to do the dishes by just saying, "Peter ...!", or I can promise to do the dishes by saying, "Me!" Searle (1975) in his thery of speech acts has set up the following classification of speech acts: assertive = speech acts that commit a speaker to the truth of the expressed proposition; directives = speech acts that are to cause the hearer to take a particular action, e.g. requests, commands and advice; commissives = speech acts that commit a speaker to some future action, e.g. promises and oaths; expressives = speech acts that expresses on the speaker's attitudes and emotions towards the proposition, e.g. congratulations, excuses and thanks; declaratives = speech acts that change the reality in accord with the proposition of the declaration, e.g. baptisms, pronouncing someone guilty or pronouncing someone husband and wife.

20. Structural types of sentences. Types of simple sentences.

A sentence is a unite of speech whose grammatical structure confirms to the laws of the language which serves as the chief means of conveying a thought and which serves as the means of showing the speakers attitude to reality.

According to the structure: 1)One member - having only one principal member which is neither subject nor the predicate; 2)Two member- a subject and a predicate. If one is missing it can be understood from a context; a) nominal type: the main part expressed by a noun: freedom, bells ringing; b) verbal type: principal part is expressed by a non-finite form of the verb: to think of that, living at a mercy of a woman; a) complete; b) incomplete (one of the principal parts or both of them are missing but can be restored from the context: what are you doing? Drinking; Who found a vase? Robin).

Both 1 member and 2 member sentences can be: a)extended: contains the subject the predicate and one or more secondary parts: Spring again; b)unextended: contains only the primary members: The book is interesting.

According to the purpose of utterance: 1) declarative - statement, expressing some fact: a) affirmative; b)negative; 2) imperative - a command, request, invitation, warning. Most of them are marked by: a)lack of the subject; b)the predicate verb is in the imperative mood; c)the use of the auxiliary do in the negative and emphatic sentences (Do go visit your granny!); 3)exclamatory- feeling, emotions: it’s a nice day! What a beautiful day! a)it usually opens with pronominal words: what a terrible noise!; b)statement: you do look marvelous!; c)question: isn’t it funny; d)subordinate clause of unreal condition: if only I knew!; 4)interrogative sentences: a)general question (begins with the auxiliary, modal or link verbs placed before the subject. Can be negative and non-negative. Negative express surprise or disappointment: haven’t you any money left?); b) alternative question (implies the choice between two or more answers. Therefore it contains the conjunction or. Sometimes the alternative question contains only a negation in the second part: will you go out tonight or not?); c)disjunctive (asking this question the speaker expects the listener to share his point of view); d)special question (it opens with interrogative pronoun (who, what, which, whose, whom) or a pronominal adverb (where, when, why, how)).

A simple sentence is a sentence structure that contains one independent clause and no dependent clauses. The most basic type of sentence is the simple sentence, which contains only one clause. A simple sentence can be as short as one word: Run! The singer bowed (This simple sentence has one independent clause which contains one subject, singer, and one predicate, bowed). In the backyard, the dog barked and howled at the cat (This simple sentence has one independent clause which contains one subject, dog, and one predicate, barked and howled at the cat. This predicate has two verbs, known as a compound predicate: barked and howled. This compound verb should not be confused with a compound sentence. In the backyard and at the cat are prepositional phrases).

The most natural sentence structure is the simple sentence: it is the first kind which children learn to speak, and it remains by far the most common sentence in the spoken language of people of all ages. In written work, simple sentences can be very effective for grabbing a reader's attention or for summing up an argument, but you have to use them with care: too many simple sentences can make your writing seem childish.

21. Compound sentence. Predicative construction.

A compound sentence is a multiple sentence of two or more clauses coordinated with each other. Clauses combined by means of coordination are regarded as independent, they are linked in such a way that there is no hierarchy in the syntactic relationship, they have the same syntactic status. Two clauses are coordinated if they are connected by a conjunct or a coordinator. Coordinated clauses are sometimes called “conjoins”. Coordination can be asyndatic or syndatic. Asyndetic (бессоюзное) Compound Sentences: In a.c.s. coordinators are absent. Two or more clauses can be made into one s. without a coordinator being used. The result is a.c.s. Don’t worry, I’ll take care of it. In writing, asyndetically joined coordinate clauses are separated by a semicolon (;), colon (:) or a dash (-). Syndetic (союзное) compound sentences: In s.c.c. the type of coordination is expressed explicitly by means of coordinators, coordinating conjunctions and, but, for, so that The lights went out, the curtain went up and the show began. The peculiarity of and and or is that they can link more than two clauses. Coordinators can be divided into one-member, or simple (and, but) and multi-member (either…or). Coordinators and conjuncts in a compound sentence express four logical types of coordination: copulative, disjunctive, adversative and causative-consecutive. From the semantico-syntactic point of view there are 2 basic types of connection: 1.Marked coordinative connection – copulative, causal, resultative, adversative, disjunctive, e.g. We cannot go upstairs for we are too tired. 2.Unmarked coordinative connection - is realized by the coordinative connector “and” and also asyndetically (copulative, enumerative, causal, resultative relations), e.g. Time passed, and she came to no conclusions. We cannot go upstairs, we are too tired. Grammatical structure of compound sentences: The semantic relations between the clauses making up the compound sentence depend partly on the lexical meaning of the conjunction uniting them, and partly on the meanings of the words making up the clauses themselves: copulative conjunctions - and, neither…nor; disjunctive conjunctions - or, otherwise, either…or; adversative conjunctions - but, yet, still, nevertheless, however. The number of clauses in a compound sentence may be greater than 2, and in this case the conjunctions uniting the clauses may be different. The length of the CS in terms of the number of its clausal parts is in principle unlimited, since it is determined by the informative purpose of the speaker.

Predicative clause is a kind of dependent clause that serves as predicative, complementing as it does a link verb in the main clause. Link verbs: be, feel, look, seem, taste, sound, become and remain: The point is that my pass is no longer valid. Introduced by means of the same subordinators as subject clause (both that-clauses and wh-clauses): And that’s why we agreed. With as if/as though can vary according to the presumed reality or unreality and the time of reference. Susan looks as if she is intelligent (похоже что она умна), Susan looks as if she was intelligent (but she is not),Susan looks as if she were intelligent (but she is not – formal).PC in idiomatic expressions: That’s there a shoe pinches (= That’s the problem)

22. Complex sentence and its types.

In syntax, a sentence with an independent clause and at least one dependent clause (subordinating clause) is referred to as a complex sentence. The dependent clause is often introduced by a subordinate conjunction such as "which", "while" or "because". I ate the meal is an independent clause and which you cooked is relative clause. A sentence with a relative clause, a clause that has no function but describes its noun phrase, does not fulfill the dependent clause requirement of a complex sentence. A sentence is complex only when it contains a subordinate clause which fulfills a syntactic function within the sentence. This is a complex-compound sentence with two independent clauses. The Complex Sentence is a polypredicative construction built up on the principle of subordination. The Complex Sentence of minimal composition includes two clauses - a principal one and a subordinate one. The subordinate clause is joined to the principal one either by a subordinating connector (subordinator) or asyndetically. The principles of classification: Subject- object –attributive- adverbial-functional. 1)The subject clause expresses the theme of the actual division of a complex sentence (What he would do next was not even spoken of); 2)The object clause denotes an object-situation of the process (She cannot imagine what you are doing there); 3)Attributive clauses express some characteristics (I shook out my scarf which was damp); 4)Clauses of adverbial positions constitute a vast domain of syntax which falls into many subdivisions; 5)The predicative clause performs the function of the nominal part of the nominal part of the predicate, i.e. the part adjoining the link-verb (be, seem, look) (Work is what keeps life going. My only terror was lest my father should follow me. Lignose looked as though a sculptor had moulded it).

23. Main linguistic schools.

Moscow linguistic school (Arakin, Blokh, Smirnitsky, Sokolova). The main features of M school are differences in grammatical and phonetical classifications. In fact there is not one bur several M schools, f.e. M school of Russin phonetics, or M school of Eng translation.

Leningrad school (Kobrina, Ilyish, Sherba, Ivanova). There are also gifferences in grammatical and phonetical classification. The classification of part of speech of L.V. Sherba is not identical to Moscow: numerals and pronouns are not considered separate parts of speech (не отвечают всем критериям). Participles are considered parts of speech (Щерба называет числительные: числовые сущ-е или числовые прил-е).

Prague school (Trubeckoy, Yakobson). The main merit of the P school is creation of phonology, concept of phoneme, theory of oppositions. According to the theory of oppositions every category is divided into pares. One member is strong, the other is weak ([p] – [b] – the opposition of voice; Future in the Past strong – Future Ind weak; waitress (animate) strong – iron (inanimate) weak).

London school (Daniel Johns). He is the author of international transcription signs.

American school (Leonard Bloomfield, Chomskii). The main feature of A school is structuralism. It means that the form is more important than the content of language and the relations are more important than the meanings (the sentence: Green ideas sleep furiously). Chomskii says that grammatically this sentence is right and analyses its structure.

24. Language and culture. Realia. Cultural stereotypes.

Language expresses in itself national culture. The words that denote specific cultural phenomena are called realia (прописка, sheriff, cowboy). Some words denote geographical names (Atlantic city, Las Vegas). These are symbols of gambling (азартн. игры). Hollywood is a symbol of movies, Scotland Yard – British Police. Personal names can also be symbolic (Romeo and Juliette – symbol of puppy love; King Solomon – symbol of wisdom and justice; Bill Gates – symbol of richness). Each culture has it’s own superstitious (black cat – bad luck; broken mirror – 7 years of bad luck; cuckoo – how many years left before marriage). There are also norms of behavior and speech (In America you can leave your hat on, put your legs on the table, mustn’t wear your socks on the room, brown color is not desirable in clothes).

26. American English. Phonetics, lexicon, grammar, spelling.

The variety of English spoken in the USA has received the name of American English. The term variant or variety appears most appropriate for several reasons. American English cannot be called a dialect although it is a regional variety, because it has a literary normalised form called Standard American (or American National Standard), whereas by definition given above a dialect has no literary form. Neither is it a separate language, as some American authors, like H.L. Mencken, claimed, because it has neither grammar nor vocabulary of its own. From the lexical point of view we shall have to deal only with a heterogeneous set of Americanisms. An Americanism may be defined as a word or a set expression peculiar to the English language as spoken in the USA. E. g. cookie ‘a biscuit’; frame-up ‘a staged or preconcerted law case’; guess ‘think’; mail ‘post’; store ‘shop’. The American variant of the English language differs from British English in pronunciation, some minor features of grammar, but chiefly in vocabulary. The historic causes of these deviations: American English is based on the language imported to the new continent at the time of the first settlements (17th century). Words which have died out in Britain, or changed their meaning may survive in the USA. Thus, I guess, was used by G. Chaucer for I think. For more than three centuries the American vocabulary developed more or less independently of the British stock and was influenced by the new surroundings. The early Americans had to coin words for the unfamiliar fauna and flora. Hence bullfrog ‘a large frog’, moose (the American elk), opossum, raccoon (an American animal related to the bears) for animals; and corn, hickory, etc. for plants. The opposition of any two lexical systems among the variants described is of great linguistic value, because it helps to observe the influence of extra-linguistic factors upon vocabulary, f.e. American political vocabulary: absentee voting ‘voting by mail’, dark horse ‘a candidate nominated unexpectedly and not known to his voters’. Many of the foreign elements borrowed into American English from the Indian languages or from Spanish penetrated very soon not only into British English but also into several other languages, Russian not excluded, and so became international (canoe, moccasin, squaw, tomahawk, wigwam). Another big group of peculiarities as compared with the English of Great Britain is caused by some specific features of pronunciation, stress or spelling standards, such as [æ] for [a:] in ask, dance, path, etc., or [e] for [ei] in made, day and some other. The American spelling is in some respects simpler than its British counterpart, in other respects just different. The suffix -our is spelled -or, so that armor and humor are the American variants of armour and humour. Altho stands for although and thru for through (Br spelling/Am spelling: cosy/cozy; practice/practise; travelling/travelling). In the course of time with the development of the modern means of communication the lexical differences between the two variants show a tendency to decrease. Cinema and TV are probably the most important channels for the passage of Americanisms into the language of Britain. The influence of American advertising is also a vehicle of Americanisms. This is how the British term wireless is replaced by the Americanism radio. The existing cases of difference between the two variants are conveniently classified into: Cases where there are no equivalents in British English: drive-in ‘a cinema where you can see the film without getting out of your car’; Cases where different words are used for the same denotatum, such as can, candy, mailbox, movies, suspenders, truck in the USA and tin, sweets, pillar-box (or letter-box), pictures or flicks, braces and lorry in England; Cases where the semantic structure of a partially equivalent word is different (pavement - ‘covering of the street or the floor and the like made of asphalt, stones or some other material’ (AmE); BrE - ‘the footway at the side of the road’); Cases where otherwise equivalent words are different in distribution. The verb ride in Standard English is mostly combined with such nouns as a horse, a bicycle, more seldom they say ride on a bus. In American English combinations like a ride on the train, ride in a boat are quite usual.

Morphological peculiarities of the American variant. Some of the suffixes more frequently used in American English are: -ее (draftee n ‘a young man about to be enlisted’), -ette (tambour-majorette ‘one of the girl drummers in front of a procession’), -dom and -ster, as in roadster ‘motorcar for long journeys by road’ or gangsterdom. The trend to shorten words and to use initial abbreviations in American English is even more pronounced than in the British variant. Particularly common in American English are verbs with the hanging postpositive. They say that in Hollywood you never meet a man: you meet up with him, you do not study a subject but study up on it. In British English similar constructions serve to add a new meaning.

25. The forms of existence of language. Language dialect and variant.

Language is a system of symbolic signs that serves as a means of communication. Each language has its phonetics, grammar and vocabulary, f.e. in Eng there are no cases, in Russia – 6, in Germany – 4. There are several dialects in each language (in Russia there are Southern dialect, Central dialect, but these dialects are not very significant now because of TV, radio and transport; In English there are also Southern dialects, Northern dialects, Central dialects – Cockney or Liverpool dialect. In Liverpool all sounds are nasalized. In Eng there are also variants. Variants – a dialect used by the whole nation (American variant, British variant, Australian variant, New Zealand variant).

27. Style in language. Norm of language.

FS are the subsystems of language, each subsystem having its own peculiar features in what concern vocabulary means, syntactical constructions, and even phonetics. The appearance and existence of FS is connected with the specific conditions of communication in different spheres of human life. FS differ not only by the possibility or impossibility of using some elements but also due to the frequency of their usage. For example, some terms can appear in the colloquial style but the possibility of its appearance is quite different form the possibility to meet it in an example of scientific style. The classification of FS: acc to Galperin, a FS of language is a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in communication. A FS should be regarded as the product of a certain concrete task set by the sender of the message. Every FS of language is marked by a specific use of language means. Neutral style, colloquial style, bookish style. Neutral style is characterized by the absence of stylistic coloring and by the possibility to be used in any communicative situation. This style is deliberately simplified. If neutral style serves any situation of communication colloquial style serves situations of spontaneous everyday communication (casual, non-formal). Bookish style corresponds to public speech (non-casual, formal). Colloquial style is divided into upper colloquial, common colloquial and low colloquial. The latter two have their own peculiar features connected with region, gender, age of the speaker. Bookish style embraces scientific, official, publicistic (newspaper), oratorical, and poetic styles. Arnold belongs to the group of scholars who reject the existence of belles-letres style. Her opinion is that each work of literature presents an example of the author’s individual speech and thus follows its own norm, in the work of literature authors often use different FS. There are no strict boundaries separating one FS from another. The oratorical style has much in common with a publicistic one. The publisictic newspaper style is close to the colloquial style. The Belles-Lettres Style: a generic term for three substyles (Galperin): the language of poetry; emotive prose (the language of fiction); the language of the drama. Definite linguistic features: genuine, not trite, imagery, achieved by purely linguistic devices; the use of words in different meanings, greatly influenced by the lexical environment; a vocabulary which will reflect to a certain degree the author's personal evaluation of things or phenomena; a peculiar individual selection of vocabulary and syntax; the introduction of the typical features of colloquial language to a full degree (drama), to a lesser degree (in prose), to a slight degree (poetry). Publicistic Style: it has two spoken varieties, namely the oratorical substyle and the radio and TV commentary.  The other two substyles are the essay (moral, philosophical, literary) and journalistic articles (political, social, economic).  The general aim of PS is to influence the public opinion, to convince the reader or the listener that the interpretation given by the writer or the speaker is the only correct one and to cause him to accept the expressed point of view. PS is characterized by coherent and logical syntactical structure, with an expanded system of connectives and careful paragraphing.  Its emotional appeal is achieved by the use of words with the emotive meaning but the stylistic devices are not fresh or genuine.  The individual element is not very evident.  Publicistic style is also characterized by the brevity of expression, sometimes it becomes a leading feature. Newspaper Style: a system of interrelated lexical, phraseological and grammatical means which is perceived by the community as a separate linguistic unity that serves the purpose of informing and instructing the reader. Information in the English newspaper is conveyed through the medium of: brief news items; press reports; articles purely informational in character; advertisements and announcements. NS has its specific vocabulary features: special political and economic terms (president, election); non-term political vocabulary (nation, crisis, agreement, member); newspaper cliches (pressing problem, danger of war, pillars of society); abbreviations (NATO, EEC); neologisms. The Style of Official Documents: the language of business documents; the language of legal documents; the language of diplomacy; the language of military documents. The main aim: to state the conditions binding two parties and to reach agreement between two contracting parties. The most striking feature: a special system of cliches, terms and set expressions (in finance - extra revenue, liability; in diplomacy - memorandum, to ratify an agreement; in legal - to deal with a case, a body of judges).

28. Main typological differences of Russian and English.

Russian is part of the Slavonic branch of the Indo-European language family. It is closely related to other Slav languages such as Polish, Czech and Serbo-Croatian. E and R are very different in many important aspects. In particular the grammar systems show significant variations. E has a fairly fixed word order. Meaning is expressed through the addition of words (for example auxiliaries) and movement of words within limited boundaries. R, on the other hand, conveys meaning largely through changes in the composition of words (e.g., by inflections or the addition of prefixes and suffixes). Its word order is very fluid. Because of these differences R often find learning E a serious challenge. Alphabet: R is written using the Cyrillic alphabet, some of whose letters are similar to letters in the Latin alphabet used by E. R learners of E may experience initial problems writing in English. Phonology: Due to differences in the phonological systems, it is difficult for Russians to acquire native-speaker-like standards of pronunciation and intonation. Russian consists of 5 vowel sounds, with no differentation between short and long vowels. This contrasts with English which has 12 vowel sounds (5 long, 7 short), plus 8 dipthongs. Possibly the most significant vowel difficulty for Russians is the sound in her/cur. This sound seems to cause especial difficulties in words beginning with /w/, such as were/work/worth. Other vowel problems include the failure to discriminate between the sounds in sat/set or sit/seat. Russian has a similar number of consonants to English, but their sounds do not fully overlap. The /θ/ and /ð/ sounds do not exist in Russian, so words such as thin, then and clothes are predictably difficult. As with many other learners of English, the /w/ and /v/ sounds are troublesome, west being pronounced vest, for example. The ng sound at the end of words like sing or thinking is difficult for Russian learners to produce accurately. Russian has variable stress patterns, as English. Russian learners may ask questions with falling instead of rising intonation, which does not sound polite to English native speakers. Grammar - Verb/Tense: Russian and English convey meaning through the verb systems in different ways. The Russian system is based in the concept of aspect: actions are either completed or not completed. This is shown by appending affixes to the verb stem. This contrasts with English which has progressive and perfect tense forms, and avoids the need for affixation or inflection by the extensive use of auxiliaries. Russian is a synthetic language syntactically, whereas English is an analytical language. Russian utilizes numerous noun cases, three grammatical genders, and distinguishes between perfective and imperfective aspect in verbs. English retains cases only in pronouns and has fairly simple morphology of nouns; verbs distinguish between simple and progressive aspects. Grammar - Other: Russian has no articles. This causes significant problems because the whole concept of article use is alien to Russian learners of English, and the English article system itself is extremely complex. Miscellaneous: Russian is a largely phonetic language. This means that a word's pronunciation can be predicted from its spelling and its spelling from its pronunciation. This is certainly not the case in English. There are aspects of the Russian language which, if directly transferred into English conversation, may sound abrupt or impolite to English native speakers: Would you like to play tennis tomorrow? - No, I wouldn't or Tell me where is the railway station, please.

29. Genetic and typological classification of languages.

Genetic classification sets the similarity of languages on the ground of their common ancestor. Typological classification sets the similarity of languages regardless from their affinity (родства), by common signs. Genetic classification. By common ancestors languages divided into families, groups, subgroups and more little divisions. F.e. Uzbek language – Turkic group – Uigur subgroup – Altaic family. Russian language – Slavonic group – Eastern-Slavonic subgroup – Indo-European family – European branch. English language – Germanic group – Western-germanic subgroup – Indo-European family. Languages that possess genetic ties with one another belong to the same linguistic grouping, known as a language family. These ties are established through use of the comparative method of linguistic analysis, which relies mainly on shared phonological innovations as the test criteria. In linguistics, genetic relationship is the usual term for the relationship which exists between languages that are members of the same language family (Indo-European languages (Europe, Southwest to South Asia); Sino-Tibetan languages (East Asia); Niger-Congo languages (Sub-Saharan Africa); Afro-Asiatic languages (North Africa to Horn of Africa, Southwest Asia)). Two languages are considered to be genetically related if one is descended from the other or if both are descended from a common ancestor. For example, Italian is descended from Latin. Italian and Latin are therefore said to be genetically related. Spanish is also descended from Latin. Therefore, Spanish and Italian are genetically related. Contact with another language can result in influence by it. For example, English has been influenced by French, Persian has been influenced by Arabic, and Japanese has been influenced by Chinese. However, this influence by definition does not constitute a genetic relationship. The discipline of historical linguistics rests on the notion that almost all of the languages spoken in the world today can be grouped by derivation from common ancestral languages into a relatively small number of families. For example, English is related to other Indo-European languages and more specifically to the Germanic family (West Germanic branch), while Mandarin Chinese is related to many other Sino-Tibetan languages.

Typological classification (by Gumboldt (by morphological criteria)): analytic (isolating) languages: words consist of single morphemes; most words consist only of a root. Mandarin Chinese, Vietnamese, Cantonese, Cambodian. Agglutinating languages: words consist of a stem and one or more clearly identifiable affixes (Finnish, Hungarian, Estonian, Swahili, Turkish). Inflectional (fusional) languages: words consist of stem and affixes which often mark several grammatical categories simultaneously. Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, Russian. Polysynthetic languages: words consist of long strings of stems and affixes, which may translate as an entire English sentence. American Indian languages.

30. Common features of Indo-European languages. Common features of Germanic languages.

Common features of Indo-European languages (Albanian, Greek, Armenian, Asturian, Belorussian, Bulgarian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, French, German, Irish, Latin, Portuguese, Russian, Ukrainian) show itself in phonetics, lexicon and grammar. Phonetics: in ancient times there were long and short vowels, monophthongs and diphthongs, but in modern languages they reserved not everywhere. In Russian, f.e. there are not long and short sounds, diphthongs. In all Germanic languages (German, English) this rule now exists, in Romans as well. Indo-European languages had consonants of three types: voiceless, voiced and aspirate. Aspirate consonants remain in Indian and some of the Persian languages. Stress in all IE languages is dynamic (as in Russia). Moreover there is a melodic stress (the meaning of a word depend on the high of the stress). Also there is a numerical stress (stressed vowel become longer). Common grammatical features of IE languages: 1. All IE languages are inflectional; 2. All of them from the beginning had two genders: animate / inanimate (female, neutral). Then there was three genders. 3. There were 8 cases in ancient (the first 5 of them still use in Russian) + there were local (местный), deponent (отложительный), vocative (звательный), nominative (именительный). 4. There was a system of roots: all IE languages consisted of 3 parts: root, rootmaking (основообразующий) suffix, ending. Now we can see such rules in Russian (мать – матери, небо – небеса, время - времена). Common lexical features of IE languages: 1. Common name of relatives (брат); 2. Numerals from 1 to 100; 3. Stars, sun, moon and so on and natural phenomena; 4. Domestic animals; 5. Basic verbs (брать, стоять, лежать, сидеть, любить, лгать, жить, сеять); 6. Parts of the body.

The Germanic languages are a group of related languages that constitute a branch of the Indo-European (IE) language family. The common ancestor of all the languages comprising this branch is Proto-Germanic, spoken in approximately the mid-1st millennium BC in Iron Age northern Europe. Proto-Germanic, along with all of its descendants, is characterized by a number of unique linguistic features, most famously the consonant change. The most widely spoken Germanic languages are English and German. The group includes other major languages, such as Dutch and Afrikaans; and the North Germanic languages including Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic. Germanic languages possess several unique features: the leveling of the Indo-European verbal system of tense and aspect into the present tense and the past tense (also called the preterite); a large class of verbs that use a dental suffix (/d/ or /t/) instead of vowel alternation (Indo-European ablaut) to indicate past tense; these are called the Germanic weak verbs; the remaining verbs with vowel ablaut are the Germanic strong verbs; the use of so-called strong and weak adjectives: different sets of inflectional endings for adjectives depending on the definiteness of the noun phrase; the consonant shift known as Grimm's Law (the consonants in High German have shifted farther yet by the High German consonant shift); a number of words with etymologies that are difficult to link to other Indo-European families, but variants of which appear in almost all Germanic languages; the shifting of stress accent onto the root of the stem and later to the first syllable of the word. Germanic languages differ from each other to a greater degree than do some other language families. Some, such as German, Dutch, and Icelandic have preserved much of the complex inflectional morphology inherited from the Proto-Indo-European language. Others, such as English, Swedish, and Afrikaans have moved toward a largely analytic type.