A Dictionary of Science

cyanamide 1. An inorganic salt containing the ion CN22–. See calcium cyanamide. 2. A colourless crystalline solid, H2NCN, made by the action of carbon

cdioxide on hot sodamide. It is a weakly acidic compound (the parent acid of cyanamide salts) that is soluble in water and ethanol. It is hydrolysed to urea in acidic solutions.

cyanamide process See calcium cyanamide.

cyanate See cyanic acid.

cyanic acid An unstable explosive acid,

HOCN. The compound has the structure H–O–C≡N, and is also called fulminic acid. Its salts and esters are cyanates (or fulminates). The compound is a volatile liquid, which readily polymerizes. In water it hydrolyses to ammonia and carbon dioxide. It is isomeric with another acid, H–N=C=O, which is known as isocyanic acid. Its salts and esters are isocyanates.

cyanide 1. An inorganic salt containing the cyanide ion CN–. Cyanides are extremely poisonous because of the ability of the CN– ion to coordinate with the iron in haemoglobin, thereby blocking the uptake of oxygen by the blood. 2. A metal coordination complex formed with cyanide ions.

cyanide process A method of extracting gold by dissolving it in potassium cyanide (to form the complex ion [Au(CN)2]–). The ion can be reduced back to gold with zinc.

cyanine dyes A class of dyes that contain a –CH= group linking two nitrogencontaining heterocyclic rings. They are used as sensitizers in photography.

Cyanobacteria A phylum consisting of two groups of photosynthetic eubacteria. The blue-green bacteria (formerly known as blue-green algae, or Cyanophyta), which comprise the vast majority of members, contain the photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll a plus accessory pigments: phycocyanins, responsible for their blue colour, and (in some) red pigments (phycoerythrins). Blue-green bac-

teria are unicellular but sometimes become joined in colonies or Ülaments by a sheath of mucilage. They occur in all

aquatic habitats. A few species Üx atmospheric nitrogen and thus contribute to soil fertility (see nitrogen fixation). Others exhibit symbiosis (see lichens). The chloroxybacteria (grass-green bacteria or prochlorophytes) have been found in marine and freshwater habitats. They differ from the blue-green bacteria in containing chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b but no blue or red pigments – a combination like that found in plant chloroplasts, which they resemble. It is thought that chloroxybacteria may share a common ancestor with chloroplasts but are not their immediate progenitors (see endosymbiont theory).

cyanocobalamin See vitamin b com-

plex.

cyanogen A colourless gas, (CN)2, with a pungent odour; soluble in water, ethanol, and ether; d. 2.335 g dm–3; m.p. –27.9°C; b.p. –20.7°C. The compound is very toxic. It may be prepared in the laboratory by heating mercury(II) cyanide; industrially it is made by gas-phase oxidation of hydrogen cyanide using air over a silver catalyst, chlorine over activated silicon(IV) oxide, or nitrogen dioxide over a copper(II) salt. Cyanogen is an important intermediate in the preparation of various fertilizers and is also used as a stabilizer in making nitrocellulose. It is an example of a *pseudohalogen.

cyano group The group –CN in a chemical compound. See nitriles.

cyanohydrins Organic compounds formed by the addition of hydrogen cyanide to aldehydes or ketones (in the presence of a base). The Ürst step is attack by a CN– ion on the carbonyl carbon atom. The Ünal product is a compound in which a –CN and –OH group are attached to the same carbon atom. For example, ethanal reacts as follows

CH3CHO + HCN → CH3CH(OH)(CN)

The product is 2-hydroxypropanonitrile. Cyanohydrins of this type can be oxidized to α-hydroxy carboxylic acids.

cyanuric acid A white crystalline watersoluble trimer of cyanic acid, (HNCO)3.

It is a cyclic compound having a six-

membered ring made of alternating imide (NH) and carbonyl (CO) groups.

CycadoÜlicales (Pteridospermales; seed ferns) An extinct order of gymnosperms that Ûourished in the Carboniferous period. They possessed characteristics of both the ferns and the seed plants in reproducing by means of seeds and yet retaining fernlike leaves. Their internal anatomy combined both fern and seedplant characteristics.

Cycadophyta A phylum of seed plants (see gymnosperm) that contains many extinct species; the few modern representatives of the group include Cycas and Zamia. Cycads inhabit tropical and subtropical regions, sometimes growing to a height of 20 m. The stem bears a crown of fernlike leaves. These species are among the most primitive of living seed plants.

cyclamates Salts of the acid,

C6H11.NH.SO3H, where C6H11– is a cyclohexyl group. Sodium and calcium cycla-

mates were formerly used as sweetening agents in soft drinks, etc., until their use was banned when they were suspected of causing cancer.

cycle A regularly repeated set of changes to a system that brings back all its parameters to their original values once in every set of changes. The duration of one cycle is called its *period and the rate of repetition of cycle, called the *frequency, is measured in *hertz. See simple harmonic

motion.

cyclic Describing a compound that has a ring of atoms in its molecules. In homocyclic compounds all the atoms in the ring are the same type, e.g. benzene (C6H6) and cyclohexane (C6H12). These two examples are also examples of carbocyclic compounds; i.e. the rings are of carbon atoms. If different atoms occur in the ring, as in pyridine (C5H5N), the compound is said to be heterocyclic.

cyclic AMP A derivative of *ATP that is widespread in animal cells as a *second messenger in many biochemical reactions induced by hormones. Upon reaching their target cells, the hormones activate *adenylate cyclase, the enzyme that catalyses cyclic AMP production. Cyclic AMP ultimately activates the enzymes of the

cyclic phosphorylation (cyclic photo-

phosphorylation) See photophosphoryla-

tion.

cyclization The formation of a cyclic compound from an open-chain compound. See ring.

cyclo- PreÜx designating a cyclic compound, e.g. a cycloalkane or a cyclosilicate.

cycloalkanes Cyclic saturated hydrocarbons containing a ring of carbon atoms joined by single bonds. They have the general formula CnH2n, for example cyclohexane, C6H12, etc. In general they behave like the *alkanes but are rather less reactive.

cyclohexadiene-1,4-dione (benzoquinone; quinone) A yellow solid, C6H4O2; r.d. 1.3; m.p. 116°C. It has a six-membered ring of carbon atoms with two opposite carbon atoms linked to oxygen atoms (C=O) and the other two pairs of carbon atoms linked by double bonds (HC=CH). The compound is used in making dyes. See

also quinhydrone electrode.

cyclohexane A colourless liquid *cycloalkane, C6H12; r.d. 0.78; m.p. 6.5°C; b.p. 81°C. It occurs in petroleum and is made by passing benzene and hydrogen under pressure over a heated Raney nickel catalyst at 150°C, or by the reduction of cyclohexanone. It is used as a solvent and paint remover and can be oxidized using hot concentrated nitric acid to hexanedioic acid (adipic acid). The cyclohexane ring is not planar and can adopt boat and chair *conformations; in formulae it is represented by a single hexagon.

cycloid The curve traced by a point on the circumference of a circle as it rolls without slipping along a straight line. The length of the arc formed by one revolution of the circle is 8r, where r is the radius of the circle. The horizontal distance between cusps is 2πr.

cyclone An area of low pressure in the atmosphere. Winds rotate about the low-

pressure centre in an anti-clockwise direction in the northern hemisphere and in a clockwise direction in the southern hemisphere. In the midand high-latitudes

cthese low-pressure systems are now commonly referred to as *depressions, or lows, and the term cyclone is avoided. See also tropical cyclone.

cyclonite (RDX) A highly explosive nitro

compound, (CH2N.NO2)3. It has a cyclic structure with a six-membered ring of al-

ternating CH2 groups and nitrogen atoms, with each nitrogen being attached to a

NO2 group. It is made by nitrating hexamine, C6H12N4, which is obtained from ammonia and methanal. Cyclonite is a very powerful explosive used mainly for military purposes.

cyclopentadiene A colourless liquid

cyclic *alkene, C5H6; r.d. 0.8021; m.p. –97.2°C; b.p. 40.0°C. It is prepared as a byproduct during the fractional distillation of crude benzene from coal tar. It undergoes condensation reactions with ketones to give highly coloured compounds (fulvenes) and readily undergoes polymerization at room temperature to give the dimer, dicyclopentadiene. The compound itself is not aromatic because it does not have the required number of pi electrons. However, removal of a hydrogen atom produces the stable cyclopentadienyl ion, C5H5–, which does have aromatic properties. In particular, the ring can coordinate to positive ions in such compounds as *ferrocene.

cyclopentadienyl ion See cyclopentadiene.

cyclopropane A colourless gas, C3H6, b.p. –34.5°C, whose molecules contain a triangular ring of carbon atoms. It is made by treating 1,3-dibromopropane with zinc metal, and is used as a general anaesthetic.

Cyclostomata See agnatha.

cyclotron A cyclic particle *accelerator in which charged particles fed into the centre of the device are accelerated in an outward spiral path inside two hollow D-

shaped conductors placed to form a split circle. A magnetic Üeld is applied at rightangles to the plane of the dees and an alternating potential difference is applied

between them. The frequency of the alternating p.d. is arranged so that the particles are accelerated each time they reach the evacuated gap between the dees. The magnetic Üeld makes them follow curved paths. After several thousand revolutions inside the dees the particles reach the perimeter of the dees, where a deÛecting Üeld directs them onto the target. In this device protons can achieve an energy of 10–12 J (10 MeV). The Ürst working cyclotron was produced in 1931 by the US physicist Ernest Lawrence (1901–58). See

also synchrocyclotron.

cylindrical polar coordinates See polar coordinates.

cyme See cymose inflorescence.

cymose inÛorescence (cyme; deÜnite inÛorescence) A type of Ûowering shoot (see inflorescence) in which the Ürstformed Ûower develops from the growing region at the top of the Ûower stalk (see illustration). Thus no new Ûower buds can be produced at the tip and other Ûowers

stitchwort

dichasial cyme 1 = oldest flower

Types of cymose inflorescence

are produced from lateral buds beneath. In a monochasial cyme (or monochasium), the development of the Ûower at the tip is followed by a new Ûower axis growing from a single lateral bud. Subsequent new Ûowers may develop from the same side of the lateral shoots, as in the buttercup, or alternately on opposite sides, as in forget-me-not. In a dichasial cyme (or dichasium), the development of the Ûower at the apex is followed by two new Ûower axes developing from buds opposite one another, as in plants of the family Caryophyllaceae (such as stitchwort). Compare

racemose inflorescence.

cypsela A dry single-seeded fruit that does not split open during seed dispersal and is formed from a double ovary in which only one ovule develops into a seed. It is similar to an *achene and characteristic of members of the family Compositae (Asteraceae), such as the dandelion. See also pappus.

cysteine See amino acid.

cystine A molecule resulting from the oxidation reaction between the sulphydryl (–SH) groups of two cysteine molecules (see amino acid). This often occurs between adjacent cysteine residues in polypeptides. The resultant *disulphide bridges (–S–S–) are important in stabilizing the structure of protein molecules.

cytidine A nucleoside comprising one cytosine molecule linked to a d-ribose sugar molecule. The derived nucleotides, cytidine mono-, di-, and triphosphate (CMP, CDP, and CTP respectively), participate in various biochemical reactions, notably in phospholipid synthesis.

cytochrome Any of a group of proteins, each with an iron-containing *haem group, that form part of the *electron transport chain in mitochondria and chloroplasts. Electrons are transferred by reversible changes in the iron atom between the reduced Fe(II) and oxidized Fe(III) states. See also cytochrome oxidase.

cytochrome oxidase An enzyme complex comprising the terminal two cytochromes of the respiratory chain in the mitochondria (see electron transport chain). It is responsible for the reduction of oxygen to form water.

cytogenetics The study of inheritance in relation to the structure and function of cells. For example, the results of breeding experiments can be explained in

terms of the behaviour of chromosomes c during the formation of the reproductive

cells.

cytokine Any soluble factor secreted by cells of the lymphoid system that acts as a signal to other lymphoid cells. There are two categories: *lymphokines, secreted by lymphocytes; and monokines, secreted by macrophages. However, certain cytokines, notably *interferons and *interleukins, are secreted by both lymphocytes and macrophages.

cytokinesis See cell cycle; mitosis.

cytokinin (kinin) Any of a group of plant *growth substances chemically related to the purine adenine. Among other roles, cytokinins stimulate cell division in the presence of *auxin and have also been found to delay senescence, overcome *apical dominance, and promote cell expansion. Zeatin is a naturally occurring cytokinin.

cytology The study of the structure and function of cells. The development of the light and electron microscopes has enabled the detailed structure of the nucleus (including the chromosomes) and other organelles to be elucidated. Microscopic examination of cells, either live or as stained sections on a slide, is also used in the detection and diagnosis of various diseases, especially *cancer.

cytolysis The breakdown of cells, usually as a result of destruction or dissolution of their outer membranes. Certain drugs (cytotoxic drugs) have this effect and are used in the treatment of some forms of cancer.

cytomegalovirus A virus belonging to the herpes group (see herpesvirus). In humans it normally causes symptoms that are milder than the common cold, but it can produce more serious symptoms in those whose *immune response is disturbed (e.g. cancer patients and people who are HIV-positive). Infection in pregnant women may cause congenital handicap in their children.

cytoplasm The material surrounding the nucleus of a *cell. It can be differentiated into dense outer ectoplasm, which is concerned primarily with cell movement,

cand less dense endoplasm, which contains most of the cell’s structures.

cytoplasmic inheritance The inheritance of genes contained in the cytoplasm of a cell, rather than the nucleus. Only a very small number of genes are inherited in this way. The phenomenon occurs because certain organelles, the *mitochondria and (in plants) the *chloroplasts, contain their own genes and can reproduce independently. The female reproductive cell (the egg) has a large amount of cytoplasm containing many such organelles, which are consequently incorporated into the cytoplasm of all the cells of the embryo. The male reproductive cells (sperm or pollen), however, consist almost solely of a nucleus. Cytoplasmic organelles are thus not inherited from the male parent. In plants, male sterility can be inherited via the cytoplasm. The inheritance of any such factors does not follow Mendelian laws.

cytoplasmic streaming The directional movement of cytoplasm in certain cells, which allows movement of substances through the cell, especially around the cell’s periphery. It has been observed most clearly in large cells, such as plant sieve elements and unicellular algae, in which simple diffusion is ineffec-

tive as a means of local transport in the cell. The exact mechanism of streaming is unknown but it is thought to involve the interaction of motor proteins (attached to organelles) with *actin microÜlaments parallel to the direction of Ûow. A similar streaming of cytoplasm is responsible for *amoeboid movement.

cytosine A *pyrimidine derivative. It is one of the principal component bases of *nucleotides and the nucleic acids *DNA and *RNA.

cytoskeleton A network of Übres permeating the matrix of eukaryotic cells that provides a supporting framework for organelles, anchors the cell membrane, facilitates cellular movement, and provides a suitable surface for chemical reactions to take place. The Übres are composed of *microtubules and *actin microÜlaments.

cytosol The semiÛuid soluble part of the cytoplasm of cells, which contains the components of the *cytoskeleton. The cell’s organelles are suspended in the cytosol.

cytotaxonomy See taxonomy.

cytotoxic Destructive to living cells. The term is applied particularly to a class of drugs that inhibit cell division and are therefore used in chemotherapy to destroy cancer cells and to a group of *T cells that destroy virus-infected cells.

2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid

(2,4-dichlorophenoxyethanoic acid): a synthetic *auxin used as a weedkiller of broad-leaved weeds. See pesticide.

dalton See atomic mass unit.

Dalton, John (1766–1844) British chemist and physicist. In 1801 he formulated his law of partial pressures (see dalton’s law), but he is best remembered for *Dalton’s atomic theory, which he announced in 1803. Dalton also studied colour blindness (a condition, once called Daltonism, that he shared with his brother).

Dalton’s atomic theory A theory of

*chemical combination, Ürst stated by John Dalton in 1803. It involves the following postulates:

(1)Elements consist of indivisible small particles (atoms).

(2)All atoms of the same element are identical; different elements have different types of atom.

(3)Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed.

(4)‘Compound elements’ (i.e. compounds) are formed when atoms of different elements join in simple ratios to form ‘compound atoms’ (i.e. molecules).

Dalton also proposed symbols for atoms of different elements (later replaced by the present notation using letters).

Dalton’s law The total pressure of a mixture of gases or vapours is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of its components, i.e. the sum of the pressures that each component would exert if it were present alone and occupied the same volume as the mixture of gases. Strictly speaking, the principle is true only for ideal gases.

dam A structure built across a river to impound or divert the Ûow of water. A dam may be constructed for one or a number of purposes. It may raise the

water level to increase the depth for navigation purposes; divert water; provide a head of water for the generation of hydroelectric power; or store water for industrial or domestic use, irrigation, Ûood control, or power production. In addition, water stored by dams is often used for recreational purposes. Most dams are constructed of either concrete or of earth and rock. Gravity dams depend on the weight of their bulk for stability and usually have a Ûat vertical face upstream. Arch dams are curved concrete structures with a convex curve upstream. Pressure is transmitted to the sides of the dam.

damping A decrease in the amplitude of an oscillation as a result of energy being drained from the oscillating system to overcome frictional or other resistive forces. For example, a pendulum soon comes to rest unless it is supplied with energy from an outside source; in a pendulum clock, energy is supplied through an *escapement from a wound spring or a falling mass to compensate for the energy lost through friction. Damping is introduced intentionally in measuring instruments of various kinds to overcome the problem of taking a reading from an oscillating needle. A measuring instrument is said to be critically damped if the system just fails to oscillate and the system comes to rest in the shortest possible time. If it is underdamped it will oscillate repeatedly before coming to rest; if it is overdamped it will not oscillate but it will take longer to come to rest than it would if it was critically damped. An instrument, such as a galvanometer, that is critically damped is often called a deadbeat instrument.

dance of the bees A celebrated example of *communication in animals, Ürst investigated by Karl von Frisch (1886–1982). Honeybee workers on returning to the hive after a successful foraging expedition perform a ‘dance’ on

the comb that contains coded information about the distance and direction of the food source. For example the waggle dance, characterized by tail-wagging movements, indicates the direction of a food source at a distance of more than

dtions from the dance, follow the instructions to Ünd the food source.

Daniell cell A type of primary *voltaic cell with a copper positive electrode and a negative electrode of a zinc amalgam. The zinc-amalgam electrode is placed in an electrolyte of dilute sulphuric acid or zinc sulphate solution in a porous pot, which stands in a solution of copper sulphate in which the copper electrode is immersed. While the reaction takes place ions move through the porous pot, but when it is not in use the cell should be dismantled to prevent the diffusion of one electrolyte into the other. The e.m.f. of the cell is 1.08 volts with sulphuric acid and 1.10 volts with zinc sulphate. It was invented

in 1836 by the British chemist John Daniell (1790–1845).100 metres. Other workers, sensing vibra-

Daphnia A genus of crustaceans belonging to the class Branchiopoda and order Cladocera (water Ûeas). Daphnia species have a transparent carapace and a protruding head with a pair of highly branched antennae for swimming and a single median compound eye. The Üve pairs of thoracic appendages form an efÜcient Ülter-feeding mechanism. Reproduction can take place without mating, i.e. by *parthenogenesis.

dark energy Energy in the universe associated with the fact that the expansion of the universe is accelerating and the *cosmological constant could have a nonzero value. Analysis of data from *WMAP indicates that about 70% of the energy of the universe is in the form of dark energy. The nature of dark energy is not known.

dark galaxy A galaxy that is composed largely of dark matter. There is some evidence for the existence of such galaxies. It is thought that they should be very common, particularly since theories of largescale structure work much better if the existence of plentiful dark galaxies is assumed.

dark matter See missing mass.

dark period (in botany) The period considered to be critical in the responses of plants to changes in day length (see photoperiodism). It is believed that such responses, which include the onset of Ûowering, are determined by the length of the period of darkness that occurs between two periods of light.

dark reaction See photosynthesis.

darmstadtium Symbol Ds. A radioactive transactinide; a.n. 110. It has several isotopes; the most stable being 281Ds, with a half-life of about 1.6 minutes. It can be produced by bombarding a plutonium target with sulphur nuclei or by bombarding a lead target with nickel nuclei. Its chemical properties probably resemble those of platinum. Darmstadtium was named after the German city of Darmstadt, the location of the Institute for Heavy Ion Research where it was Ürst produced.

Darwin, Charles (1809–82) British naturalist, who studied medicine in Edinburgh followed by theology at Cambridge University, intending a career in the Church. However, his interest in natural history led him to accept an invitation in 1831 to join HMS Beagle as naturalist on a round- the-world voyage. After his return Üve years later he published works on the geology he had observed. He was also formulating his theory of *evolution by means of *natural selection, but it was to be 20 years before he published On the Origin of Species (1859), prompted by similar views expressed by Alfred Russel *Wallace. Among his later works was The Descent of Man (1871). See also darwinism.

Darwinism The theory of *evolution proposed by Charles Darwin in On the Origin of Species (1859), which postulated that present-day species have evolved from simpler ancestral types by the process of *natural selection acting on the variability found within populations. On the Origin of Species caused a furore when it was Ürst published because it suggested that species are not immutable nor were they specially created – a view directly opposed to the doctrine of *special creation. However the wealth of evidence presented by

Darwin gradually convinced most people and the only major unresolved problem was to explain how the variations in populations arose and were maintained from one generation to the next. This became clear with the rediscovery of Mendel’s work on classical genetics in the 1900s and led to the present theory known as *neo-Darwinism.

Darwin’s Ünches (Galapagos Ünches)

The 14 species of Ünch, unique to the Galapagos Islands, that Charles Darwin studied during his journey on HMS Beagle. Each is adapted to exploit a different food source. They are not found on the mainland because competition there for these food sources from other birds is Üercer. Darwin believed all the Galapagos Ünches

– basically similar but differing in bill shape – to be descendants of a few that strayed from the mainland, and this provided important evidence for his theory of evolution. See also adaptive radiation.

DAT (digital audio tape) A type of magnetic tape originally designed for audio recording but now adapted for computer storage and backup use. The recording method allows a capacity of about 1 gigabyte.

database A large collection of information that has been coded and stored in a computer in such a way that it can be extracted under a number of different category headings.

dating techniques Methods of estimating the age of rocks, palaeontological specimens, archaeological sites, etc. Relative dating techniques date specimens in relation to one another; for example, *stratigraphy is used to establish the succession of fossils. Absolute (or chronometric) techniques give an absolute estimate of the age and fall into two main groups. The Ürst depends on the existence of something that develops at a seasonally varying rate, as in *dendrochronology and *varve dating. The other uses some measurable change that occurs at a known rate, as in *chemical dating, radioactive (or radiometric) dating (see

carbon dating; fission-track dating; potassium–argon dating; rubidium–

strontium dating; uranium–lead dating), and *thermoluminescence.

of the form (n–1)dxns2, where x is 1 to 10.

See also transition elements.

d.c. See direct current.

DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane; a colourless organic crystalline compound,

d(ClC6H4)2CH(CCl3), made by the reaction of trichloromethanal with chlorobenzene. DDT is the best known of a number of chlorine-containing pesticides used extensively in agriculture in the 1940s and 1950s. The compound is stable, accumulates in the soil, and concentrates in fatty tissue, reaching dangerous levels in carnivores high in the food chain. Restrictions are now placed on the use of DDT and similar pesticides.

Deacon process A former process for

making chlorine by oxidizing hydrogen chloride in air at 450°C using a copper chloride catalyst. It was patented in 1870 by Henry Deacon (1822–76).

deactivation A partial or complete reduction in the reactivity of a substance, as in the poisoning of a catalyst.

deadbeat See damping.

deamination The removal of an amino

group (–NH2) from a compound. Enzymatic deamination occurs in the liver and is important in amino-acid metabolism, especially in their degradation and subsequent oxidation. The amino group is removed as ammonia and excreted, either unchanged or as urea or uric acid.

death The point at which the processes that maintain an organism alive no longer function. In humans it is diagnosed by permanent cessation of the heartbeat; however, the heart can continue beating after a large part of the brain ceases to function (see brain death). The death of a cell due to external damage or the action of toxic substances is known as necrosis. This must be distinguished from programmed cell death (see apoptosis), which is a normal part of the developmental process.

death phase See bacterial growth curve.

death rate (mortality) The rate at which a particular species or population dies, whatever the cause. The death rate is an

important factor in controlling the size of a population. Compare birth rate.

de Broglie, Louis-Victor Pierre Raymond (1892–1987) French physicist, who taught at the Sorbonne in Paris for 34 years. He is best known for his 1923 theory of *wave–particle duality (see also de broglie wavelength), which reconciled the corpuscular and wave theories of *light and proved important in *quantum theory. For this work he was awarded the 1929 Nobel Prize.

de Broglie wavelength The wavelength of the wave associated with a moving particle. The wavelength (λ) is given by λ = h/mv, where h is the Planck constant, m is the mass of the particle, and v its velocity. The de Broglie wave was Ürst suggested by Louis de Broglie in 1923 on the grounds that electromagnetic waves can be treated as particles (*photons) and one could therefore expect particles to behave in some circumstances like waves (see complementarity). The subsequent observation of *electron diffraction substantiated this argument and the de Broglie wave became the basis of *wave mechanics.

debye A unit of electric *dipole moment in the electrostatic system, used to express dipole moments of molecules. It is the dipole moment produced by two charges of opposite sign, each of 1 statcoulomb and placed 10–18 cm apart, and has the value 3.335 64 × 10–30 coulomb metre.

Debye–Hückel theory A theory to explain the nonideal behaviour of electrolytes, published in 1923 by Peter Debye (1884–1966) and Erich Hückel (1896– ). It assumes that electrolytes in solution are fully dissociated and that nonideal behaviour arises because of electrostatic interactions between the ions. The theory shows how to calculate the extra free energy per ion resulting from such interactions, and consequently the activity coefÜcient. It gives a good description of nonideal electrolyte behaviour for very dilute solutions, but cannot be used for more concentrated electrolytes.

Debye–Scherrer method A method of X-ray diffraction in which a beam of X-

rays is diffracted by material in the form of powder. Since the powder consists of very small crystals of the material in all possible orientations, the diffraction pattern is a series of concentric circles. This type of pattern allows the unit cell to be found with great precision. This method was Ürst used by Peter Debye and Paul Scherrer in 1916 and independently by Albert Hull in 1917.

deca- Symbol da. A preÜx used in the metric system to denote ten times. For example, 10 coulombs = 1 decacoulomb (daC).

decahydrate A crystalline hydrate containing ten molecules of water per molecule of compound.

decalescence See recalescence.

decanoic acid (capric acid) A white crystalline straight-chain saturated *carboxylic acid, CH3(CH2)8COOH; m.p. 31.5°C. Its esters are used in perfumes and Ûavourings.

decantation The process of separating a liquid from a settled solid suspension or from a heavier immiscible liquid by carefully pouring it into a different container.

Decapoda An order of crustaceans of the class Malacostraca that are distributed worldwide, mainly in marine habitats. Decapods comprise swimming forms (shrimps and prawns) and crawling forms (crabs, lobsters, and crayÜsh). All are characterized by Üve pairs of walking legs, the Ürst pair of which are highly modiÜed in crawling forms to form powerful grasping pincers. The carapace is fused with the thorax and head forming a *cephalothorax. The antennae are especially long in shrimps and prawns, which also possess several pairs of well-developed swimming appendages (pleopods) posterior to the walking legs. Following fertilization by the male, females usually carry the eggs until they hatch. The larvae undergo several transformations before attaining adult form.

decarboxylation The removal of carbon dioxide from a molecule. Decarboxylation is an important reaction in many biochemical processes, such as the *Krebs

cycle and the synthesis of *fatty acids. See also oxidative decarboxylation.

decay 1. See decomposition. 2. The spontaneous transformation of one radioactive nuclide into a daughter nuclide, which may be radioactive or may not,

with the emission of one or more parti- d cles or photons. The decay of N0 nuclides

to give N nuclides after time t is given by N = N0exp(–γt), where γ is called the decay constant or the disintegration constant.

The reciprocal of the decay constant is the mean life. The time required for half the original nuclides to decay (i.e. N = ½N0) is called the half-life of the nuclide. The same terms are applied to elementary particles that spontaneously transform into other particles. For example, a free neutron decays into a proton and an electron

(see beta decay). See also alpha particle.

deci- Symbol d. A preÜx used in the metric system to denote one tenth. For example, 0.1 coulomb = 1 decicoulomb (dC); 0.1 metre = 1 decimetre (dm).

decibel A unit used to compare two power levels, usually applied to sound or electrical signals. Although the decibel is one tenth of a bel, it is the decibel, not the bel, that is invariably used. Two power levels P and P0 differ by n decibels

when n = 10log10P/P0. If P is the level of sound intensity to be measured, P0 is a ref-

erence level, usually the intensity of a note of the same frequency at the threshold of audibility.

The logarithmic scale is convenient as human audibility has a range of 1 (just audible) to 1012 (just causing pain) and one decibel, representing an increase of some 26%, is about the smallest change the ear can detect.

deciduous Describing plants in which all the leaves are shed at the end of each growing season, usually the autumn in temperate regions or at the beginning of a dry season in the tropics. This seasonal leaf fall helps the plant retain water that would otherwise be lost by transpiration from the leaves. Examples of deciduous plants are rose and horse chestnut. Compare evergreen.

deciduous teeth (milk teeth) The Ürst of two sets of teeth of a mammal. These