English

where competition was fiercest. And how they could raise rates on shorthaul business, where they had less to fear from other suppliers.

The principles first worked out by L a r d n e r in the 1850s are now used by economists working for the major airline companies today to work out the freight rates and passenger fares that will give the airline the largest possible profit. And the rates that result have a lot in common with those of the nineteenth century in principle.

Translate into Russian

1.It was he who discovered the law of demand and supply.

2.It was he who first applied the law.

3.It was he who wrote this report.

4.It was he who made the first film.

5.It was he who invented the radio.

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Sum up what the text said about:

-A.A. Cournot

-J. Dupuit

-D. Lardner

-an example of the application of the principles at present

Agree or disagree

1.It is very easy to calculate such rates knowing the law of demand and supply

2.This principle of calculation is also applied to charges for accommodation.

3.This principle is applied in very many cases.

The Language of Computers

Fifty years ago people didn't even hear of computers, and today we cannot imagine our life without them.

Computer technology is the fastest-growing industry in the world. The first computer was the size of a minibus and weighed a ton. Today, its job can be done by a chip the size of a pin head. And the revolution is still going on.

Very soon we'll have computers that we'll wear on our wrists or even in our glasses and earrings. Such wearable computers are being developed in the USA.

Japan's biggest mobile-phone company has just released its cleverest product so far, the i-mode, a mobile phone that allows you to surf the Internet as well as make calls. People are already using the phone to check the news headlines, follow the stock market, and download the latest jokes. Soon they will be able to buy cinema tickets and manage their bank accounts.

Nowadays with Internet TV it has become a reality to have a TV-set, a PC and the Internet all in one.

The next generation of computers will be able to talk and even think for themselves. They will contain electronic 'neural networks'. Of course, they'll be still a lot simpler than human brains, but it will be a great step forward. Such computers will help to diagnose illnesses, find minerals, understand and control the world's money markets, identify criminals and control space travel.

Computer revolution is changing our life and our language too. We are constantly making up new words or giving new meanings to old ones.

Most of computer terms are born in Silicon Valley, the world's top computer-science centre.

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Say if these statements are true or false.

1.The computer industry is growing very fast in the world.

2.Now the size of computers is the same as earlier.

3.People can already buy cinema tickets using the phone.

4.Soon the next generation of computers will be able to identify criminals, find minerals, talk and even think.

5.A lot of words connected with computers have come from Silicon Valley.

Sum up what the text said about:

-the computer technology nowadays

-the next generation of computers

-Silicon Valley

The Pros and Cons of Internet

The Internet is without doubt one of the most important inventions in history. It was started in 1968 by the US government, but at first it was used mainly by scientists. Since 1990, when the World Wide Web was created, it has changed the world and its uses are growing every day.

The main use of the Internet is to find information for your studies or job, or just to find out more about your hobbies, sports or current events.

All of the latest information is available to you, in your home, at any hour of the day and night. It's much faster and easier to surf the Net in search of information from all over the world than to travel to libraries in dozens of countries.

You can also use the Internet to read newspapers and magazines, play games, plan your holiday or buy from your favorite shop. E-mail makes it possible to send electronic messages anywhere in the world in seconds, and you can use the Internet to 'chat' with people and make new friends. Nowadays you can even have Internet TV - imagine watching a film on TV and getting information on the actors at the same time!

However, the real world of the Internet may not be as perfect as it seems. With so much information available, finding what you want can take you hours. Multimedia web pages with photographs, music and video are attractive, but they make downloading slow and boring. Besides, there's too much advertising instead of real information.

As for the Internet friendships, sitting at home in front of a computer making 'chat friends' is not the same as actually meeting people.

Say if these statements are true or false.

1. The Internet is one of the greatest inventions in the world side by side with TV, radio, and many other inventions.

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2.From the first days the Internet was used by ordinary people.

3.One can use it at any time to find any information about sports, music, current events, and jobs.

4.Some people communicate through the Internet sending electronic messaged to each other.

5.It takes you a few seconds to download the necessary information.

What did the text say about:

-the invention of the Internet

-the advantages

-and disadvantages of the Internet?

Do you have an access to the Internet? What purpose do you use the Internet for?

Management and its Functions

1. Management and Organization.

Management includes those people, who have the right to make the decisions that affect the company's affairs. Organization is the means by which management coordinates the effort of employees to attain the company's objectives. An organizational structure is a framework which allows management to delegate and control the responsibility of individuals and departments. Once the organizational structure has been established, the areas of activities, levels of authority and duties must be clearly defined.

2. Levels of Management.

There are three management levels: top management, middle management and operating management. Top management includes the president, vice presidents and the general manager. Middle management includes department managers, plant managers and production managers. Operating management includes supervisors, foremen.

3. Management Functions.

Management performs many functions. The most important function of a manager at any level is decision making. If a manager faces a problem, he must analyze it and choose the right approach for each situation. The next function is planning. Good managers must foresee the results of their work in future. Then managers set objectives, coordinate and control the work of the whole organization. They also make hiring and firing. This is the process of finding the right person for each job. Innovating is a creative function. New approaches, new technologies, finding new and better ways

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to do the job are only some of the creative tasks managers deal with.

Answer the questions

1.What does management include?

2.What is an organizational structure?

3.What does top management include?

4.What does middle management include?

5.What does operating management include?

6.What are the functions of managers at any levels?

Translate into English

1.Менеджмент - это умение руководить подчиненными, чтобы организовать успешную работу предприятия.

2.Организационная структура помогает управляющим распределять обязанности и контролировать их выполнение.

3.Обязанности служащих должны быть четко определены.

4.Высшее руководство включает президента фирмы, вицепрезидентов и генерального управляющего.

5.Среднее звено управления - руководители отделов, управляющие производством.

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6.Одна из важных функций управляющего любого уровня - это принятие решений.

7.Нужно уметь проанализировать проблему и выбрать правильный путь ее решения.

8.Хороший менеджер должен найти для каждой должности подходящего служащего.

What have you learnt about management from the text?

Economic Systems

An economic system is the way in which a country uses its available resources (land, workers, natural resources, machinery) to satisfy the demands of its inhabitants for goods and services. There are three main economic systems: planned economics, market economics, and mixed economics.

Planned economies are economies with large amount of central planning and direction, when the government takes all the directions, the government decides production and consumption, the government owns all the major productive resources. Changes in demand are difficult to predict, that's why some products are overproduced, and other ones are underproduced. Delays and queues are typical features of planned economics. The former USSR and some other eastern bloc countries are examples of the countries where government decisions were dominant.

In a true market economy the government plays no role in the management of the economy. The system is based on private enterprise with private ownership of the means of production and private supplies of the capital. Workers are paid wages by employers according to how skilled they are and how many firms wish to employ them. Consumers spend more on the products and services which they like. In the market economy it is the consumers who decide what is to be produced. Consumers pay high prices for the products they like. The economy adjusts automatically to meet the changing demands.

A mixed economy contains elements of both the market and planned economies. It lies between the two extremes of the command and market economies. In mixed economies some resources are controlled by the government while others are used in response to the demands of consumers. Practically, all the economies of the world are mixed. For example, Hong Kong has some state-controlled industry, while Cuba has some privately owned and controlled firms. In a mixed economy the government and the private sector interact in solving economic problems. The U.K. is a mixed economy: some services are provided by the state (health care and defense) while a number of privately owned offer other goods and services.

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Answer the questions

1.What is an economic system?

2.What is a planned economy?

3.What are its main features?

4.What is a market economy?

5.What is the main difference between a market economy and a planned economy?

6.Are there really examples of pure planned and market economies in the world?

7.What's a mixed economy?

8.What type of economy is the UK? Is Russia now?

Translate into English.

1. Государство владеет заводами, землей, ресурсами.

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2.В плановой экономике государство контролирует производство и потребление товаров.

3.Трудно предсказать изменение моды, поэтому промышленность часто выпускает старомодные товары.

4.В рыночной экономике правительство не играет роли в управлении экономикой.

5.Рыночная экономика основана на частном предпринимательстве и частной собственности на средства производства.

6.Именно потребители решают, что должно производиться.

7.В реальной действительности экономические системы располагаются где-то между рыночной и плановой экономикой.

8.В смешанной экономике правительство и частный сектор взаимодействуют в решении экономических проблем.

Speak on the topic

Types of Proprietorship

From the legal point of view there are three basic kinds of business firms: 1) sole proprietorships, 2) partnerships and 3) corporations. A sole proprietorship is simply a one owner firm. The proprietor is responsible for all personal and business debts and losses; he provides the capital and executes the total management. To start the business of this kind it is necessary to obtain licenses required by the law.

The proprietorship form has several advantages, such as simplicity of organization, freedom to make all decisions, tax advantages etc. Among disadvantages the following are worth mentioning: possible lack of ability and experience, difficulty in raising the capital.

Partnerships are firms owned jointly by two or more persons who are coowners of business. Partnerships are based on agreement among the partners. Advantages of the partnership may be combined talents, judgments, skills as well as larger capital and tax advantages. Disadvantages of this form are divided authority, danger of disagreement etc.

Corporation is a firm owned by a group of people, called stockholders, and given rights, privileges and liabilities by law. Advantages of the corporation are variety of skills, abilities and ideas, ease of expansion. Disadvantages of this form of ownership may be as follows: government regulation, profit sharing, taxes.

Corporation has the right to conduct business as if it were one person.

Answer the questions

1.How many basic kinds of business firms do you know? What are they?

2.Who is responsible for debts and losses in a sole proprietorship?

3.What are other responsibilities of the proprietor?

4.What is it necessary to do to start the sole proprietorship?

5.Enumerate the advantages of the proprietorship.

6.What are its disadvantages?

7.What kind of business form is called partnership?

8.What is it based on?

9.Do you know any advantages and disadvantages of the partnership?

10.Can you give an example of a corporation? What are its organization peculiarities?

11.Speak on its advantages and disadvantages.

Sum up the text in 10-15 short sentences

Economist

I'm a student of the Economic Faculty of the Moscow State University. In the near future I’ll graduate from the University and become a professional

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economist. I'm sure that the profession of an economist is one of the most important nowadays in view of the situation in our country.

What makes a good economist? Whatever he does, an economist should have a thorough training in economic theory, mathematics and statistic and our University offers such training. At the University we are taught various general and special subjects, such as Macroeconomics, Microeconomics, Management, Accounting. Marketing, Advertising, Money and Banking, Economic Theory, Econometrics, Statistics, computer Science, Philosophy, Business Ethics, Foreign Languages, etc.

The profession of an economist is quite diversified. The graduates of our faculty work at educational institutions, various research centers and laboratories, in industry, business, banks, etc. You may continue your studies at the Postgraduate Courses or Doctorate if you have a desire and ability to become a scientist or a professor. Scientists in the field of Economics create new theories and models, test their hypotheses and carry out economic researches.

Being employed in industry and business, our graduates work as managers, executive managers, sales managers, financial managers. Some of us work as accountants. An accountant is one of the most prestigious and widely required profession of an economist in any society. You shouldn't mix an accountant with a book-keeper. While a book-keeper is mostly involved in calculations, like balance sheets, income statements, invoices, an accountant is responsible for designing the financial policy of a company. He should be able to analyze the economic situation in and out the enterprise and make recommendations to the management.

Some of us work at the banks, at the Stock Exchange as brokers, others work for the government or are employed by various agencies and by military services.