First weight standards

Each succeeding civilization added to mankind's knowledge, building an accumulation of measuring standards and techniques. Some contributed weight measures. Others showed us how to measure time. Still others gave us methods for surveying big areas of land and establishing boundaries.

In techniques for measuring weights, the Babylonians made important improvements upon the invention of the balance. Instead of just comparing the weights of two objects, they compared the weight of each object with a set of stones kept just for that purpose. In the ruins of their cities, archaeologists have found some of these stones finely shaped and polished. It is believed that these were the world's first weight standards.

The Babylonians used different stones for weighing different commodities. In modern English history, the same basis has been used for weight measurements. For the horseman, the "stone" weight was 14 pounds. In weighing wool the stone was 16 pounds. For the butcher and fishmonger, the stone was 8 pounds. The only legal stone weight in the imperial system was 14 pounds.

The Egyptians and the Greeks used a wheat seed as the smallest unit of weight, a standard that was very uniform and accurate for the times. The grain is still in limited use as a standard weight. However, wheat seeds are no longer actually put in the pan of the balance scale. Instead, a weight that is practically the same as that of an average grain of wheat is arbitrarily assigned to the grain. The Arabs established a small weight standard for gold, silver and precious stones which very often were a part of trade or barter deals. To weight the small valuable quantities, they used as a weight standard a small bean called a karob. This was the origin of the word carat which jewelers still use to express the weight of gems and precious metals.

In trading between tribes and nations, many of these methods for measuring weights and distances gradually became intermixed, particularly by the Romans who spread this knowledge throughout the known world at that time, also adding some standards of their own. As the Roman soldiers marched, they kept track of the distance they traveled by counting paces. A pace was the distance covered from the time one foot touched the ground until that same foot touched the ground again, or the length of a double step.

EXERCISE 1

Translate and remember the following words

face, hands, incense, insect, string, spring, scent, candle, burn, battle, gift, retirement, advance, cell phone, menace, menacing, alter, altered, alternating, alternative, boundary, stone, butcher, bean

EXERCISE 2

Answer the following questions to the texts

1. What unusual now types of clocks can you name?

2. Receiving a wristwatch meant…?

3. Is it still popular to wear a wristwatch? What type?

4. Who is considered to be very punctual?

5. Is atomic clock dangerous?

EXERCISE 3

Translate these synonyms and remember them

desire (v), want, wish

avoid (v), escape, avert, evade

total (adj), entire, complete, whole

should (v), must, have to

assume (v), suppose

vary (v), change, differ, alter

condition (n), circumstance

appropriate (adj), suitable, proper

since (conj), as, for

extract (v), draw out

EXERCISE 4

Translate the following sentences paying attention to Infinitive complexes

1. He described the principle to be used in all modern systems.

2. P. H. Yablochkov is known to be the inventor of the electric current.

3. The method proposed by the young engineer is said to be very effective.

4. Electronics is believed to begin when the valve was invented.

5. Electronic equipment is said to have already been applied at the beginning of the XX century.

6. Electronics is sure to find an ever growing application.

7. Automation is believed to be the highest stage in the development of the technology.

8. Electronic equipment has been proved to save millions of man and machine hours.

9. The action to be referred to is known to be cathode bombardment.

10. The experiment is expected to be conducted in time.

LESSON 7

TEXT 13