Unit 4 reading and discussing professional literature
4.1. Study the information below:
manuscript – author’s originally produced work not officially printed or reproduced;
monograph – a formal piece of writing on a particular subject;
research report – well-documented writing about your research topic;
paper – a piece of writing on an academic subject;
essay – a piece of writing by a student on a particular subject;
review – a short description of a paper, book, article, film, performance etc. with author’s viewpoints and recommendations;
annotation – short notes to a piece of writing in order to explain parts of it;
abstract – a condensed version of a long piece of writing, it appears at the beginning of a research article, thesis, etc. as a point-of-entry for any given academic paper;
summary – a short statement that gives the main information without giving details;
synopsis – a short summary of a piece of writing.
4.2. Give your definitions of the following words and phrases:
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the book under review subheading paragraph development a cover page “reading towards writing” |
a review article effective introduction strong paragraph subject area |
key words copyright law co-authorship subject matter |
4.3. Are these statements true (T) or false (F)?
1. A monograph may be released in the manner of a book or journal article, that is why research libraries usually have a large collection of monographs.
2. Authors today usually submit manuscripts printed from a computer.
3. Students often need to write reports on their research, in an extended form these become dissertations or theses.
4. A manuscript is essentially the earliest draft of a book.
5. An abstract adds no new information, but simply summarize the report.
6. Summaries of books or dissertations present the major facts in scientific language.
7. An effective abstract allows readers to decide whether they want to read the paper or not.
8. Any research paper should be submitted with a structured abstract of not more than 250 words.
9. Usually you write your summary after the rest of the paper is completed.
10. You must list all literature cited in your paper in alphabetical order, by first author.
4.4. Read the sentences below and explain the words in bold, then add them to your working vocabulary.
1. In general, a monograph is very dense with information, and is of little interest to people outside the field.
2. Leading scholars have been invited to present papers at the conference.
3. In the scientific literature, review articles are a category of scientific paper, which provides a synthesis of research on a topic at that moment in time.
4. Preliminary data have been obtained.
5. If available, I would appreciate your sending me preprints or reprints of your and your colleagues work, especially work on subject.
6. The most desirable outcomes of any research project may be student presentation of research results at a professional meeting.
7. Recommendations are usually listed in order of priority.
8. Each appendix must be named and numbered.
9. If you are citing an on-line journal, you must use the journal citation (name, volume, year, page numbers).
10. This book acquaints the reader with the latest achievements in medicine.
4.5. Match the words in A with the words having the same meaning in B.
A B
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1. a key word 2. an evaluation of publication 3. a serial publication 4. unpublished works 5. references 6. a handwrite 7. an abstract 8. a subject matter 9. in short 10. a synopsis 11. a title page 12. a questionnaire |
a) manuscripts b) a summary c) a basic term d) a review e) a manuscript f) a cover page g) in brief h) a list of questions i) bibliographic details j) an annotation k) a journal l) a theme |
4.6. Match the questions with the answers.
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1. What types of abstracts are typically used? 2. What is very important in an abstract? 3. What is the purpose of a research report? 4. Which personal qualities are needed in your work? 5. What is science? 6. When was the word ‘scientist’ introduced? 7. Is technology the fruit of applied science? 8. What is the typical length of an abstract?
9. How many key words does a list consist? 10. How does the length of an annotation vary? 11. What is the word limitation in major articles? 12. What is the length of a typical summary? |
a) Analysing and reporting on an investigation. b) Only in 1840. c) Yes, it is. d) Accumulative body of knowledge about natural world. e) Descriptive and informative. f) Clarity of sentences and proper reported of quantities. g) Vision, energy, judgment. h) It ranges from 100 to 150 words, occasionally just a few words. i) 3 to 9 words. j) It seldom exceeds 300 words.
k) To 10,000 words.
l) It should be two hundred words or less. |
4.7. Do the following exercises.
A) Translate the word-combinations given below and explain the difference.
l. The latest book, the last book. 2. The latest journal, the last journal. 3. The latest publication, the last publication. 4. The latest edition, the last edition. 5. The latest issue of the newspaper, the last issue of the newspaper.6. The latest article, the last article.
B) Insert the correct word: last or latest.
1. My aim is to acquaint the reader with the ….. discoveries in this field of research.
2. The ….. chapter of my thesis is devoted to the experimental technique 3. The introductory is concerned with the discussion chapter of the ….. approach to the problem. 4. The summary is given at the ….. two pages. 5. The second chapter deals with the ….. models of the device. 6. This is the ….. model produced.
C) Translate the following sentences into English.
1. – Вы читали последнюю статью доктора С. в последнем номере журнала?
–Да.
–Чему она посвящена?
–Самым последним методам исследования.
2. – Чему посвящен последний журнал этого года?
3. – О чем идет речь в последней статье, которую вы прочитали? – О последних достижениях в моей области исследования.
4. – Вы знакомы с этой статьей?
– Да. Я прочитал ее вчера.
– Интересная статья?
– Очень.
– Меня тоже интересует эта проблема. Надо прочитать эту статью.
– Прочитайте. В вводной части автор знакомит читателя с историей вопроса, а в последующих разделах мы знакомимся с методом исследования, полученными данными и выводами автора.
5. – Из скольких частей состоит ваша диссертация?
– Из двух. В первой части содержится описание истории вопроса и метода исследования, а во второй – само исследование и его результаты.
6. – Из скольких глав состоит книга?
– Из десяти.
– И в каждой главе есть (содержатся) новые данные?
– Да. В каждой главе много новых данных.
4.8. The sentences given below represent notes for contributors of manuscripts. Translate them carefully, explain words in bold and add them to your working vocabulary.
1. The Editorial Committee welcomes submission of articles, but wil1 consider only papers that represent original work not previously published.
2. Papers should be typed with double spacing and wide (4cm) margins. Three copies should be submitted to the executive editor.
3. An article should not exceed, without consulting the editors, a maximum of 6,000 words, notes and references included.
4. An excessive number of headings and subheadings should be avoided.
5. Authors will greatly assist the editor by setting up their typescript, headings, abstract, acknowledgements, notes, references, etc., exactly in the manner of recent issues of the Tijdschrift.
6. Each paper should accompanied by an abstract of 100-150 words in English, typed on a separate sheet.
7. References to papers should be given thus: Compton, P.A. (1972), Internal Migration in Hungary. Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie 63, pp. 25-38.
References to theses should be given thus: Roeleveld, W. (1974), The Groningen Coastal Area (Ph.D. thesis, Free Univ. of Amsterdam).
References to books should be given thus: Yeates, M.H. and Garner B.J. (1971),
The North American City. New York: Harper & Row.
References to chapters of books should be given thus: Alonso, W. (1964), Location Theory. In: J. Fried-Mann and W. Alonso, eds., Regional Development and Planning, pp. 78-81. Cambridge, Mass.: The M.I.T Press.
8. In the case of a publication by three or more authors, it should be cited in the text as Smith et al (1975). In the list, however, all names must be given in full. The initials of the first-named author (only) should be placed after his name.
9. Figures, diagrams, and maps should be included in a single numbered series and designated ‘Figures’. They should be drawn in such a way that lines and black patches are sharp and even.
10. Illustrations will be returned on request only.
(Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie: Journal of Economic and Social Geography. Vol. 85, Amsterdam: the Royal Dutch Geographical Society KNAG, 1994.)
4.9. Study the information below.
A) We write an annotation when we need explanatory notes to a paper (book, article, text). If an annotation is clearly constructed, it will create a good impression on a reader.
Grammatical features of annotations are:
1. Passive Voice: e.g. to be concerned with / to be informed / to be reported / to be listed / to be based / to have been studied / to be observed / to be discussed / to be applied / to be given.
2. Impersonal forms: e.g. it is clear / it is said / it may be assumed / it is reported / it is known / it is expected / it is estimated / it is considered / it is interesting / it is noteworthy / it should be mentioned.
3. “Noun + adjective” structure: e.g. the problem investigated / the data available / the information given / the results obtained / the chapter discussed.
4. “Noun + noun” structure: e.g. weather change / research paper / surface sediments / animal life / equilibrium behaviour / amplitude ration / oxidation system / workshop presentation / standard style / computer storage.
5. Adverbs: e.g. increasingly / readily / particularly / practically / theoretically / currently / consequently.
6. Connectives: e.g. as well as / that is why / provided that / in order to / in addition to / apart from / under consideration / so far (See Unit 3).
B) Below there are useful phrases which are commonly used in annotations:
The text deals with … The paper is concerned (with) …
In this (present) paper: ● the main principles of …. are given
● an interesting method of ….. is suggested
● the problems of ….. are stated
The paper is headlined
The author: ● emphasizes the ideas (that) ….. ● points out
● proves that … ● states
● shares the idea that … ● expresses his viewpoint …
● suggests a hypothesis of … ● gives the basic principles of (on)
● tries to solve ● analysed
● puts forward the new hypothesis of (on) …
● presents a comprehensive analysis of …
● investigated complex processes of development …
● worked out new experiment technique (procedure) …
Upon reading the paper one realized that …..
4.10. Read 5 examples of annotations carefully and find out:
a) the most distinctive grammatical features;
b) common patterns for annotations;
c) scientific spheres of the books mentioned.
1. Bednarz M.M., Janvier B. The Understanding of Numeration in Primary School// Educational Studies in Mathematics (N.Y.). 1982. №13.
This article presents results of a research projects concerned with primary level pupils’ understanding of numeration. The two main objectives of this research were to clarify the notion of numeration and to make explicit, as much as possible, what an understanding of this concept, implies. We were also concerned, not to limit ourselves only to a theoretical study, but to make our research results usable by teachers. We shall provide a detailed analysis of the theoretical framework that specifies the concept of numeration in a much wider sense than is usually encountered in primary school mathematics.
2. Baker J.M. Evidence for Covalency in Tm2+ and Yb3 + in Calcium Fluoride// J. Phys. (N.Y.) 1968.
Axe and Burns have discussed the effects of covalency in Tm24 in calcium fluoride, with particular emphasis on its contribution to the crystalline-field splittings of the energy levels. This theory has been developed to give a consistent interpretation of the transferred hyperfme interaction with neighbouring fluoride ions and the orbital reduction factor, as well as the crystal-field splittings. The contribution to the transferred hyperfme structure from polarization of the 5p electrons of the rare earth ions is extrapolated from the configuration 4f7 and is shown to be fairly small. The treatment is extended to the isoelectronic ion Yb3 + where the covalency is larger. The larger crystal-field splitting is predicted by the theory, as well as larger transferred hyperfme structure and orbital reduction factor, and the quantitative estimates of the crystal field splittings are as good as those of Axe and Burns for Tm2+. No attempt is made at exact calculation, but it is demonstrated that the fairly crude covalent calculation gives a consistent interpretation of all of the available experimental information for the two isoelectronic ions.
3. Michaud G., Charland Y., Vauclair S. and G. Diffusion in Main sequence Stars: Radiation Forces. Time Scales, Anomalies // The Astrophysical J. (N.Y.) 1976.
The abundance anomalies generated by diffusion in the envelope of main-sequence stars are studied. It is shown that in slow-mass stars (M < 1.2 Mg) diffusion leads to underaboundances while in more massive stars (M > 1.3 Mg) diffusion leads to overaboundances of at least some elements. In general the overabundance and underabundance factors generated (up to 107) are larger than the observed anomalies in stars of the main sequence (rarely up to 106). It is established that diffusion can lead to the largest anomalies observed. For particular elements (Sr, Eu,...) it is shown where more accurate calculations are needed. Approximate formulae are developed for radiative accelerations. They allow the reader to carry out calculations for cases of special interest to him and also to evaluate the uncertainty of the calculations.
4. Harris
J.
Using
a Computer to Assist in the Teaching and Learning of Science. Aspects
of Education // J. of the Institute of Education. 1980. № 12.
In this paper the author discusses examples of computer – based work in science. In his opinion they can be used to enrich science courses and can lead to effective learning. The author believes that the computer based work in the classroom should involve students in an active way, and this active involvement is one of the essentials for learning.
Most of the examples referred to are taken from projects developed for use at secondary school level in this country. They do not require any programming skill on the part of students or teachers. Most are intended to be used interactively by a small group at a printing or visual display terminal, though some should be adapted for demonstration to a larger group, and a few might be used, though less effectively, in batch mode.
5. Rommel Th. С. An Introduction to Ecology and Population Biology. N.Y., 1973.
Current widespread interest in environmental problems has added the word ecology to everyone’s vocabulary: yet few appreciate the scientific bases of the subject. With this brief and clearly written introduction, Dr. Rommel has made it possible for everyone, even one having little previous training in biology, to visualize the chains and webs of force and action that govern the improvement of the deterioration of life and earth.
“An Introduction to Ecology and Population Biology” explains basic ecological processes without unnecessary technical detail, discusses the salient aspects of population biology without begging down in theoretical models, and emphasizes throughout those elements of greatest relevance to man. It maintains a style and depth appropriate for the interested beginner and employs a minimum of technical terms, all of which are defined in the Glossary.
4.11. When we write an abstract we need a brief summary of a research article or thesis, always at the beginning. An academic abstract usually outlines four elements:
● The research focus (i.e. statement of the problem).
● The research methods used.
● The results / findings of the research.
● The main conclusions or recommendations (not always).
Abstract length varies, but typical length ranges from 100 to 500 words, very rarely more than a page and occasionally just a few words. The practice of using key words in an abstract is vital and first of all because of today’s electronic information retrieval systems.
Two types of abstracts are typically used:
1. Descriptive Abstracts
● tell readers what information the report, article, or paper contains;
● include the purpose, methods, and scope of the report, article, or paper;
● do not provide results, conclusions, or recommendations;
● are always very short, usually under 100 words;
● introduce the subject to readers, who must then read the report, article, or paper to find out the author’s results, conclusions, or recommendations.
2. Informative Abstracts
● communicate specific information from the report, article, or paper;
● include the purpose, methods, and scope of the report, article, or paper;
● provide the report, article, or paper’s results, conclusions, and recommendations;
● are short – from a paragraph to a page or two, depending upon the length of the original work being abstracted. Usually informative abstracts are 10% or less of the length of the original piece;
● allow readers to decide whether they want to read the report, article, or paper.
4.12. Now read 7 examples of abstracts and find out which abstract:
● is descriptive? ● is informative?
● includes research methods? ● is very short?
● attracts your attention? ● provides recommendations?
● uses more than one well developed paragraphs?
● is understandable to a wide audience?
1. LABOUR FLEXIBILITY: A TALE OF TWO MILLS
ROGER HAYTER Department of Geography, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia V5A 1S6, Canada.
ERIC GRASS Vancouver Community College, Langara Campus, 100 49th Street, Vancouver, British Columbia V5Y 2Z6, Canada.
TREVOR BARNES Department of Geography, University of British Columbia, 1984 West Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1W5, Canada.
In many established industries survival during the 1980s has required productivity improvements, massive job loss and the achievement of hew, more ‘flexible’ working conditions. Yet, the search for smaller, more flexible work forces is necessarily an uncertain and contentious process, especially in situations characterized by IN SITU adjustments and entrenched Fordist labour relations. This article focuses on IN SITU restructuring arid the search for flexibility in a Fordist labour relations environment, notably the coastal lumber industry of British Columbia, by comparatively analyzing the recent experiences of the Chemainus and Youbou sawmills. The differences in the introduction of new technology reflect the presence of an irreducible local component in labour control which in turn show variations in the strategies of management and labour in imposing and resisting that control. We also note that in contrast to the consistent profitability of the Chemainus mill, at Youbou the failure of management and union to achieve more comprehensive – forms of flexibility is a reflection, and cause, of Youbou’s marginality.
(Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie: Journal of Economic and Social Geography. Vol. 85, Amsterdam: the Royal Dutch Geographical Society KNAG, 1994.)
2. LANGUAGE AND ECONOMY IN FRIESLAND: A FIRST
STEP TOWARDS DEVELOPMENT OF A THEORY
AB VAN LANGEVELDE Province of Friesland, Research Department, P.O. Box 20120, 8900 HM Leeuwar den, the Netherlands.
Research in the field of language and economy is of international political significance. It is relevant to, for instance, the role that is played by national and minority languages in the process of European unification. This article contains a case study of the mutual relationship between language and economy in Friesland, one of the northern provinces of the Netherlands. An ongoing public debate in Friesland concerns the effects of the Frisian language and the language policy, pursued by the provincial authorities, on the functioning of the regional economy. Possible negative consequences are emphasized in this debate, even though the present literature contains hardly any evidence of such consequences. Little information is available about the position of the Frisian language in trade and industry in Friesland. This is why further research is recommended. Because of the importance of the aspect of image formation in the influence of the Frisian language on the economy, elements from behavioural economic geography will be used.
(Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie: Journal of Economic and Social Geography. Vol. 85, Amsterdam: the Royal Dutch Geographical Society KNAG, 1994.)
3. SEGREGATION LEVELS IN THE LATE-APARTHEID CITY 1985-1991
AJ. CHRISTOPHER Department of Geography, University of Port Elizabeth, P.O. Box 1600, Port Elizabeth 6000, South Africa
In the course of the 1980s a number of changes took place in the organization of South African cities, leading to the concept of ‘modernizing’ apartheid. Relaxation of laws and the publicized responses to racial integration in a few localities encouraged the concept of a breakdown of residential barriers. However, an examination of the 1991 census suggests not only that segregation levels are remarkably high, but also that they rose in the period between 1985 and 1991. The White population in particular remains highly segregated from the remainder. There is nevertheless a number of significant regional differences, indicating that urban restructuring was not uniform. The late-apartheid city thus appears little changed from its predecessor.
(Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie: Journal of Economic and Social Geography. Vol. 85, Amsterdam: the Royal Dutch Geographical Society KNAG, 1994.)
4. CLIMATE CORRELATIONS BETWEEN GREENLAND AND ANTARCTICA DURING THE PAST 100,000 YEARS
MICHAEL BENDER, TODD SOWERS, MARY-LYNN DICKSON, JOSEPH ORCHARDO, PIETER GROOTES, PAUL A. MAYEWSKI & DEBRA A. MEESE Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island 02881, USA; Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Palisades, New York 10964, USA; Department of Geological Sciences and Quaternary Research Center, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98105, USA; Glacier Research Group, Institute for the Study of Earth, Oceans and Space, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire 03824, USA; Cold Regions of Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, USA.
The ice cores recovered from central Greenland by the GRIP and GISP2 projects record 22 interstadial (warm) events during the part of the last glaciation spanning 20-105 kyr before present. The ice core from Vostok, east Antarctica, records nine interstadials during this period. Here we explore links between Greenland and Antarctic climate during the last glaciation using a high-resolution chronology derived by correlating oxygen isotope data for trapped O2 in the GISP2 and Vostok cores.
(Monthly Nature Volume 2 № 7, July 1994. London: Macmillan Magazines Ltd, 1994)
5. THE ROLE OF DEEP ROOTS IN THE HYDROLOGICAL AND CARBON CYCLES OF AMAZONIAN FORESTS AND PASTURES
DANIEL С. NEPSTAD, CLAUDIO R. de CARVALHOT, ERIC A. DAVIDSON, PETER H. JIPP, PAUL A. LEFEBVRE, GUSTAVO H. NEGREIROS, ELSON D. da SILVAT, THOMAS A. STONE, SUSAN E. TRUMBORE & SIMONE VIEIRA
Woods Hole Research Center, Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543, USA; EMBRAPA-CPATU, CP 48, Belem, Para 66.001, Brazil Department of Earth System Sciences, University of California, Irvine, California 92717, USA.
Deforestation and logging transform more forest in eastern and southern Amazonia than in any other region of the world. This forest alteration affects regional hydrology and the global carbon cycle, but current analyses of these effects neglect an important deep-soil link between the water and carbon cycles. Using rainfall data, satellite imagery and field studies, we estimate here that half of the closed forests of Brazilian Amazonia depend on deep root systems to maintain green canopies during the dry season.
(Monthly Nature Volume 2 № 12, July 1994. London: Macmillan Magazines Ltd, 1994)
6. Ypt1p IMPLICATED IN v-SNARE ACTIVATION
JLAN P. LIAN, SHELLY STONE, YU JIANG, PATRICK LYONS & SUSAN FERRO-NOVLCK Department of Cell Biology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Yale University Medical School, New Haven, Connecticut 06510, USA.
Synaptobrevin-like membrane proteins that reside on transport vesicles, called the vesicle SNARE (v-SNARE), play a key role in ensuring that a vesicle targets and fuses with its correct acceptor compartment1-3. Here we show that Boslp, the v-SNARE of yeast endoplasmic reticulum-to-Golgi transport vesicles, pairs with another integral membrane protein of similar topology (Sec22p) on vesicles.
(Monthly Nature Volume 2 № 12, July 1994. London: Macmillan Magazines Ltd, 1994)
7. THE HYDRODYNAMICS OF DOLPHIN DRAFTING
DANIEL WEIHS, Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, 32000, Israel.
Background Drafting in cetaceans is defined as the transfer of forces between individuals without actual physical contact between them. This behavior has long been surmised to explain how young dolphin calves keep up with their rapidly moving mothers. It has recently been observed that a significant number of calves become permanently separated from their mothers during chases by tuna vessels. A study of the hydrodynamics of drafting, initiated in the hope of understanding the mechanisms causing the separation of mothers and calves during fishing-related activities, is reported here.
Results Quantitative results are shown for the forces and moments around a pair of unequally sized dolphin-like slender bodies. These include two major effects. First, the so-called Bernoulli suction, which stems from the fact that the local pressure drops in areas of high speed, results in an attractive force between mother and calf. Second is the displacement effect, in which the motion of the mother causes the water in front to move forwards and radially outwards, and water behind the body to move forwards to replace the animal’s mass. Thus, the calf can gain a ‘free ride’ in the forward-moving areas. Utilizing these effects, the neonate can gain up to 90% of the thrust needed to move alongside the mother at speeds of up to 2.4 m/s. A comparison with observations of eastern spinner dolphins (Stenella longirostris) is presented, showing savings of up to 60% in the thrust that calves require if they are to keep up with their mothers.
Conclusions A theoretical analysis, backed by observations of free-swimming dolphin schools, indicates that hydrodynamic interactions with mothers play an important role in enabling dolphin calves to keep up with rapidly moving adult school members.
(http ://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/ Abstract %28)
4.13. The purpose of a written summary is to highlight the main idea of a text. While summarizing remember the following advice:
a) Condense the points into straight-forward statements.
b) Remove examples and details. c) Do not add your own views.
d) Write logically. e) Write in your own words.
Study the following examples.
1. The climatic conditions prevailing in the British Isles show a pattern of alternating and unpredictable periods of dry and wet weather, accompanied by a similarly irregular cycle of temperature changes.
British weather is changeable.
2. It is undeniable that the large majority of non-native learners of English experience a number of problems in attempting to master the phonetic patterns of the language.
Many learners find English pronunciation difficult.
3. Tea, whether of the China or Indian variety, is well known to be high on the list of those beverages which are most frequently drunk by the inhabitants of the British Isles.
The British drink a large amount of tea.
4. It is not uncommon to encounter sentences which, though they contain a great number of words and are constructed in a highly complex way, none the less turn out on inspection to convey very little meaning of any kind.
Some long and complicated sentences mean very little.
5. One of the most noticeable phenomena in any big city, such as London or Paris, is the steadily increasing number of petrol-driven vehicles, some in private ownership, others belonging to the public transport system, which congest the roads and render rapid movement more difficult year by year.
Big cities have growing traffic problems.
6. People whose professional activity lies in the field of politics are not on the whole, conspicuous for their respect for factual accuracy.
Politicians often lie.
4.14. Now read an example of making a summary of a text.