The university of strasbourg

The origins of the University of Strasbourg date back to the early 16th century when Jean Sturm created an institution where one could study theology, philosophy, medicine and law. A strong intellectual centre in Europe during the 17^th century, the University then experienced three centuries of bicultural development being moved back and forth between France and Germany.

In the wake of several historic developments, three separate universities were established in 1968 focusing on sciences, humanities and legal, political, social and technological education.

Each of the University’s main academic fields of instruction is based upon research sections that are the driving force of the institution, with over 2,600 professors and 2,000 staff. The Technology Transfer Office, one of the very first developed in a French university, strives to promote the work of the researchers and facilitate partnerships with economic and institutional stakeholders. An essential player in the promotion of scientific and technical culture, the University interfaces with its host city, Strasbourg. Solidly anchored in the European Higher Education Area, the University of Strasbourg, a beating heart of the Alsatian metropolis with its 41,000 students, has the potential to face the challenging international competition.

Schools, Faculties and Departments

There are 38 faculties, schools and institutes at the University of Strasbourg that cover five areas of teaching:

● Arts, Literature and Languages

● Law, Economics, Management, Political and Social Sciences

● Social Sciences and Humanities

● Science and Technology

● Health

Foreign students represent 19.8% of the university student population. The higher the degree, the higher the percentage of foreign students: 47% in doctoral studies 31% in Master’s programmes, and 15% in Bachelor’s programmes.

The University of Strasbourg has:

● 1 Nobel prize, Jean-Marie Lehn, in Chemistry (1987);

● 13 members and 2 correspondents in the Science Academy;

● 1 member and 1 correspondent in the Humanities Academy;

● 38 faculties, schools and institutes and 77 research groups, 37 of which are connected to a research structure;

● 10 doctoral schools and 2656 doctoral students (6.3% of the student population in 2010) doctoral dissertations defended (in 2011).

The LMD system – for licence (bachelor), master, and doctorate – is based on the number of semesters completed since leaving secondary school and their equivalent in European credits under the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS):

● Licence = 6 semesters = 180 ECTS

● Master = 10 semesters = 300 ECTS

● Doctorate = 16 semesters

Postgraduate Doctorate’s degree

These courses, which culminate in the defence of a doctoral thesis, validate a high level of university research. There is a specific entrance selection procedure, and they are only open to students who have obtained a Master’s degree research-oriented.

Doctoral studies are organised within one of the 10 Strasbourg University doctoral schools, among them are:

● The Doctoral School of Humanities

● The Doctoral School of Chemical Sciences

● The Doctoral School of Mathematics, Information Sciences and Engineering Sciences

● The Doctoral School of Life, Universe and Environmental Sciences.

PhD Thesis defense

The time to submit the PhD thesis will be determined with respect to the scientific achievements as judged by the Thesis Adviser and the TAC (Thesis Advisory Committee), the requirements of the doctoral schools, and the work contract.

Specific requirements in the writing of the thesis will follow guidelines from the doctoral schools. This will set the starting a thesis defense deposit procedure. Accordingly, the following will be generally set, which might differ slightly according to the doctoral schools:

● The scientific content (decided and monitored by the Thesis Adviser)

● The composition of the jury

● The calendar of events before the final defense day according to the respective doctoral schools

● Notification of the doctoral school

● Approval by the president of the doctoral school and the president of the university of the composition of the jury

● Scheduling of the defense date

● Deposition of the Thesis manuscript

● Defense day per se (непосредственно, как таковой)

● Report of the Thesis jury to the doctoral school

● Fulfillment of all requirements (administrative and otherwise) for getting the PhD diploma.

■ Find the underlined words and phrases in the text which mean the same as the following definitions:

1) having two types of culture; 2) someone who does research;

3) to make relationship easier; 4) investors;

5) to connect; 6) pleased to accept;

7) a completed unit of a student’s work that forms part of a course;

8) to happen as a final result; 9) to form an opinion;

10) something that you must do; 11) official (instructions);

12) to establish a standard; 13) usually in a stated place;

14) members (here); 15) an official announcement;

16) an official agreement; 17) planning;

18) a solemn statement; 19) a piece of writing;

20) a written statement.

1.13. Look at the phrases taken from the text and explain what they mean in your own words.

1. “… research sections … are the driving force of the institution …”

2. “The Technology Transfer Office … strives to promote the work of the researchers …”

3. “Solidly anchored in the European Higher Area …”

4. “… to face challenging international competition.”

5. “… the European Credit Transfer System …”

6. “… the defence of a doctoral thesis …”

7. “… a specific entrance selection procedure …”

8. “… to submit the PhD thesis …”

1.14. Give some facts from the text to prove the following:

1. The University of Strasbourg is one of the largest in Europe.

2. Research and training have been undertaken at the University for over 500 years.

3. The University has a reputation for international education.

4. It offers a wide range of graduate and postgraduate courses within faculties, schools and institutes.

5. Opportunities for research leading to the degree of PhD are available.

6. The University of Strasbourg is a leading institution in respect of its research activities.

1.15. Answer the following questions.

1. When did the University appear in Strasbourg?

2. What subjects could the students study at the University in the 17^th century?

3. How was the University of Strasbourg separated in 1968?

4. How many students study at the University?

5. Which areas of teaching does the University of Strasbourg cover?

6. Which Doctoral Schools are there at the University?

7. What culminates doctoral studies?

8. How do you consider the procedure of PhD thesis defence – complicated or common?

1.16. Translate the following sentences from Russian into English.

1. Университет Бирмингема (Birmingham) является одним из ведущих университетов Соединённого Королевства.

2. Университет был основан в 1900 году и в настоящее время обучает 25.000 студентов.

3. В состав университета входит 18 факультетов, Бизнес-школа и Центр непрерывного образования.

4. Бирмингемский университет стал основателем международного объединения университетов.

5. Это открыло перед студентами широкие возможности участия в международных программах обмена, а перед исследователями – перспективы совместных работ.

6. Бирмингемский университет входит в состав The Russel Group – ассоциации, объединяющей 20 наиболее сильных в научном отношении британских университетов.

7. Язык общения в университете – английский.

8. В университете обучается более 4.000 иностранных студентов.

9. Бирмингемский университет предлагает широкий ряд программ обучения, среди которых – 500 бакалаврских и более 300 постдипломных учебных программ.

10. Университет является одним из наиболее престижных образовательных учреждений Великобритании благодаря отличному качеству обучения и высокому уровню исследовательской работы.

1.17. Answer the following questions. Then make up a dialogue with your partner using your answers.

1. How long have you been studying English?

2. What is English for you:

a pleasure a necessity a hobby

an opportunity a problem an investment?

3. Does learning English need specialist training?

4. What do you think about practical application of English?

5. Which material have you read and translated from English (American) journals and magazines?

6. Have you found any interesting books, journals, articles while looking through the current publications?

7. Are they concerned with your research?

8. What information is important for your work?

9. Do you consider reading scientific literature in English to be useful for your research?

10. Do you have any problems while reading English articles?

11. When are you going to take your exam in English?

12. How many years does it take to get a doctorate?

1.18. The questions below and your answers may guide you in your talk about your University, research and activity. Work in pairs.

1. When was your University founded?

2. Where is it located?

3. Is it far from the place you live in?

4. Does the University occupy one building or several?

5. Is the staff of your University large?

6. Does the University hold any conferences, symposia or seminars?

7. Do you take part in them?

8. What department do you belong to?

9. How many research students are there at your department?

10. Who is the head of your department?

11. In what field do you carry on your research?

12. Do you conduct the research individually or in a team?

13. Attending the English language course you want to improve your English, don’t you?

14. Who is your supervisor (adviser)?

15. What do you know about the Scientific Council?

16. When are you supposed to prove your thesis?

UNIT 2 SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

2.1. Study the information below.

Science – 1) the study and knowledge of the physical world and its behaviour that is based on experiments and proven facts;

2) an area that uses scientific methods;

research – the detailed study of something in order to discover new facts;

phenomenon – an event or situation that can be seen to happen or exist;

evidence – facts or physical sights that help to prove something;

assumption – something you consider likely to be true;

hypothesis – 1) an idea that attempts to explain something; 2) an unproved theory;

theory – 1) an idea that explains how and why something happens;

concept – 1) an idea of something that exists; 2) an idea for something new;

findings – information that you discover or opinions that you form after doing research;

method – a planned way of doing something.

2.2. Give your definitions of the following words and phrases.

Pure / Applied science basic / fundamental research

to make an assumption working hypotheses (pl.)

a principle method the fundamentals (pl.) of mathematics

a key concept the theoretical framework of the research

2.3. Are these statements true or false?

1. A thesis is a research project that is undertaken for Doctor of Philosophy and written for an academic audience.

2. In order to check any hypothesis we have to make a number of experiments.

3. The assembly of data from a variety of sources may be part of the process of research.

4. Research is just collecting facts or information with no clear purpose.

5. Brainstorming can be used to generate and refine new ideas. It is best undertaken with a group of people.

6. The logic of all experimental researchers is basically the same, regardless of the field of study in which the scientist is working.

7. Evidence shows that global warming is definitely occurring.

8. Theoretical physics deals with the theories and calculations rather than experiments.

9. Some students failed to grasp even the simplest mathematical concepts.

10. We can systematize any concept by classifying it into a small number of distinct categories.

2.4. Read the sentences below and explain the words in bold, then add them to your working vocabulary.

1. The problem under discussion was first formulated at the beginning of the 20^th century.

2. Our experiments were carefully planned and most technically performed.

3. Previous experiments in this area were obviously unsuccessful. Moreover, they were limited in scale and material.

4. Although the data reviewed are only preliminary results obtained from a limited number of experiments, they are fairly convincing and, therefore, reliable.

5. We are trying to develop new methods of pollution control.

6. Genetic engineering is a highly topical issue at the moment.

7. Formulating and clarifying the research topic is the starting point of your research project.

8. It is important that you plan the literature search carefully.

9. The literature sources help you to insight into previous research.

10. Research strategy must contain clear objectives.

2.5. Match the words and word combinations in A with the ones having the same meaning in B.

A B

1) have a post-graduate course (v) 2) research associate (n) 3) study (n) 4) result (n) 5) do academic work (v) 6) theorem (n) 7) science (n) 8) solve a problem (v) 9) topical (adj) 10) purpose (n) 11) highlight (v) 12) assessment (n) 13) attempt (n) 14) insight (n) 15) formula (n) 16) conclusion (n)

a) systematic knowledge b) to find the answer to a question c) very interesting at the present time d) a goal / aim e) a value f) to emphasize g) an effort to do something h) the ability to understand more i) a group of letters or numbers j) an investigation k) to do research l) a researcher n) to take a post-graduate course o) an outcome p) a statement that must be proved q) something you decide is true

2.6. Fill in the chart with the family words and translate them into Russian. Use a dictionary to help you.

noun	verb	adjective	adverb
researcher
	evidence
	hypothesize
scientist
theoretician
	experiment
	inform
		developmental
	define
explanation

2.7. Read the paragraph below and find out in it the equivalents of the following topical words and phrases:

conduct (v) offer (v) aim (n)

easy to understand discover (v) opinion (n)

include (v) get information important (adj) variety (n)

We can define research as something that people undertake in order to find out things in а systematic way, thereby increasing their knowledge. Two phrases are important in this definition: ‘systematic research’ and ‘to find out things’. ‘Systematic’ suggests that research is based on logical relationships and not just beliefs. As part of this, your research will involve an explanation of the methods used to collect the data, will argue why the results obtained are meaningful, and will explain any limitations that are associated with them. ‘To find out things’ suggests there are a multiplicity of possible purposes for your research. These may include describing, explaining, understanding, criticising and analysing. However, it also suggests that you have a clear purpose or set of ‘things’ that you want to find out, such as the answer to a question or number of questions.

2.8. You are going to read about a Research Institute in Stockholm. First of all answer the question below. Then do exercises given after the text.

● Which research project was launched in:

China Africa Sweden Macedonia and Albania

the Baltic Sea states South East Asia Mongolia?

1. Swedish Environmental Research Institute is Sweden’s leading organisation for applied environmental research. This is a non-profit independent research institute, with more than 30 years of experience of co-operation with industry and government.

Its activities consist of scientific research, consulting and education services at both national and international level. The international experience is extensive, including contracts performed in Europe, Asia, Africa and South America.

2. Through extensive international activities and close cooperation between research and consultancy, the Institute offers customers advantages that traditional consultancy firms lack. It offers fast and effective world class environmental solutions.

3. The Institute comprises Sweden’s largest group of environmental expertise, with 150 employees where of 20 have doctors’ degree and 80 have academic diplomas.

4. Our employees’ competence is wide, covering ecological, biological, chemical, physical, technical and socio-economical aspects of environmental issues. It has accredited laboratories, dealing both with research-based and consulting environmental analyses.

5. Areas of expertise

● Sustainable Industrial Production ● Chemicals and Chemical Risk Analysis

●Products / Integrated Product Policy ● Working Environment

● Air Quality Management ● Waste Management

● Water Management ● Land Management

● Climate and Energy

6. Since 1997 the Institute has been working as experts and system architects in the “Inner Mongolia Lake Restoration Project” for a sustainable development of Lake Wulingsuhai and its catchment.

7. In 2001 it formed a joint venture company with Tianjin Academy of Environmental Science after a 15 year cooperative partnership. The new company, Sino-Swedish Environmental Technology Development Co, Ltd. will promote technical collaboration and support the application of sustainable production in China.

8. In 2001 the Institute initiated The Baltic 21 Institute for Sustainable Industry. The institute is a co-operation of national representatives from the Baltic Sea states working for knowledge, technology transfer and eco-efficiency in the industrial sector. (www.baltic21institute.org)

9. It participated as air quality experts in the mission “Balkans Unit Environmental Impact Assessment Mission to Macedonia and Albania” in 2002 to study the environmental situation in the region.

10. Since 2001 the Institute together with Statistics Sweden and the Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute shares the task of host of the Swedish emission database called Swedish Environmental Emission Data.

11. It has also been appointed by the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency as data host for the Swedish environmental monitoring surveys of air pollution and environmental pollutants.

12. The Institute works in the “SIDA Programme on Regional Air Pollution in Developing Countries” in Asia and Africa since 2000 to support air pollution monitoring and policy recommendatiоns.

13. Since 2000 it is involved in the project on acidification in Thailand, in co-operation with the Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment in Thailand.

14. In 2006 the Institute participated in the “Mapping of Air Pollution Levels in Johannesburg, South Africa – Measurement campaign with diffusive samplers in July 2006, performed as a co-operative project between the Metropolitan Councils of Greater Johannesburg and The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research.

A) Find the words and phrases in bold in the text which mean the same as the following definitions:

solving problems examinations

special advice influence

practically used making a judgment

suggestions industrial co-operation

examples moving

B) Look at the phrases taken from the text and explain what they mean in your own words.

a non-profit independent research institute (paragraph 1)

Chemicals and Chemical Risk Analysis (paragraph 5)

Working Environment (paragraph 5)

Waste Management (paragraph 5)

a sustainable development of Lake Wulingsuhai and its catchment (paragraph 6)

the task of host of the Swedish emission database (paragraph 10)

C) Answer the following questions.

1. Are ‘consist of’, ‘include’ and ‘comprise’ synonyms?

2. Are “extensive’ and ‘effective’ synonyms?

3. Are ‘research institute’ and ‘consultancy firm’ synonyms?

4. What is the difference between ‘national’ and ‘international’?

5. Which meanings of ‘issue’ do you know?

6. How do you understand ‘academic diplomas’?

2.9. The university of Wolverhampton’s School of Applied Sciences offers an analytical consultancy service and analytical laboratories equipped with instrumentation in wide variety of techniques. Below there is a list of the main techniques. Your task is to match them with some typical applications given after.

1) Flame Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS)

2) Flame Photometry

3) Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (GFAAS)

4) Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (ICP)

5) Ultraviolet Visible Spectrophotometry

6) Spectrofluorimetry

7) Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)

8) Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (NMR)

9) Gas Chromatography (GC)

10) Gas Chromatography – Mass Spectrometry (GCMS)

11) High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)

12) Ion Chromatography (IС)

13) Gel Permeation Chromatography (GPC)

14) Electrochemical Analysis of Heavy Metal Ions

15) X-ray Diffraction (XRD)

16) X-ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy (XRF)

17) Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM & EDX)

18) Thermal Methods of Analysis – Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)

19) Thermal Methods of Analysis – Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)

20) Thermal Methods of Analysis – Dynamic Mechanical Thermal Analysis (DMTA)

21) Analytical Techniques within Environmental Sciences

a) Typical applications of the technique include:

● Trace levels of elements in geological samples.

● Trace levels of elements in aqueous / biological / organic fluids.

● Multi-elements in air sampling filters.

● Aluminium in jam.

b) Some typical applications of HPLC include:

● Drug analysis of biological fluids.

● Pesticide and other residue analysis of foodstuffs.

● Amino acid analysis, involving precolumn: derivatisation. Up to 22 amino acids can be separately assayed in one sample.

c) Typical examples of analyses that have been performed on this system include:

● Identification of the active ingredients of essential oils used in aromatherapy.

● Determination of lindane in cows’ milk.

● General identification of organic solvents in various samples.

● Trace constituents in land-fill gases.

d) Typical applications of FTIR spectroscopy include:

● Identification of organic and inorganic compounds.

● Studies on polymer samples.

● Quantitative analysis of hydrocarbons in water.

● Surface analysis by Attenuated Total Reflectance.

e) Major applications of Spectrofluorimetry include:

● The determination of quinine, and the В vitamins riboflavin (vitamin B₂) and thiamine (vitamin B₁).

● The analysis of metal ions as fluorescent organic complexes.

● The analysis of non-metals such as boron and selenium as fluorescent derivatives.

● Spectrofluorimetry is also useful when a colorimetric method is insufficiently sensitive.

f) Typical applications include:

● Routine analysis of water samples for individual trace metal ions.

● Analysis of biological samples for individual trace metal ions after wet ashing or microwave digestion.

● Analysis of minerals and alloys after dissolution for major, minor and trace metals.

g) Applications of NMR spectroscopy are very wide and include:

● Full elucidation of the structures of organic molecules of simple to quite complex structure.

● Elucidation of structural aspects of more complex molecular systems - for example we have done significant work on polymer systems.

● Studies on biochemical systems. There is considerable scope for the technique here.

● Quantitative analysis – this does not have to be restricted to the determination of discreet molecules as is the case, for instance, in chromatography. Applications are varied, from determining tree water in biological systems, to monomer ratios in polymers. Calibration can be by the internal standard technique, making such analyses quite last.

● Fingerprinting and/or qualitative analysis – e.g. looking at small differences in the compositions of different batches of similar materials. Pattern matching has been used to distinguish between different types of fruit juice to detect adulteration.

h) Some typical applications of GC include:

● Routine analysis of solvents in the paint and allied industries.

● Analysis of organic vapours collected from the atmosphere for occupational hygiene purposes.

● Identification of oil samples via pattern matching of their gas chromatograms.

● Analysis of fermentation products.

● Analysis of pyrolysis products from polymers.

● Analysis of small biochemical molecules, such as fatty acids, sugars and amino acids via derivatisation.

i) Typical applications of the technique include:

● Analysis of microcrystal (μm) structure.

● Analysis of phosphate platings.

● Air sampling filters.

● Forensic investigations.

j) Typical applications include:

● Metals in waters, fruit juices, beers, wines, soft drinks, urine, foodstuffs, foodware, sludges and sediments.

● The method is particularly suitable for Pb, Cd, Zn, Cu, Bi, Tl and In.

k) Typical applications of the technique include:

● Analysis of river and lake sediments.

● Determination of inorganic coating thickness.

● Asbestos in air sampling filters.

● Metals and alloys analysis.

l) Measurement of Dust in Air

● Portable low volume pump systems with collection heads for both total and respirable dust. Dust is collected over an eight hour working shift and the total mass is recorded. The dust is collected on cellulose nitrate filter papers and is thus available for chemical analysis using X-ray analysis.

● The system can be left in situ in a dusty location or could be worn by an individual throughout the working day.

● A portable, hand held dust monitor is available to measure respirable levels in air. The system continuously records mass of dust and stores values on a data logger. Chemical analysis of dust is not available.

Measurement of Oxides of Nitrogen

● A chemiluminescent monitor is available for the continual monitoring of nitrogen oxide and dioxide in air. Values can be stored for 24 hour intervals.

Measurement of Particle Size

● A Malvern mastersize system is available for the measurement of particle size within powder and emulsion samples. Suitable samples include soils, sediments, powders and industrial dust samples. Particle sizes can be accurately measured using less than a gram of material.

m) Typical applications of GPC include:

● Number average molar mass (M_n).

● Weight average molar mass (M_w).

● Other average molar masses (e.g. M_z, M_z+l, M_p).

● Molar mass distributions, polydispersity index.

● Identification of oligomers, monomers, solvents and additives.

● Analysis of copolymers and blends.

n) The applications of this technique include:

● Studies of range of usefulness of structural materials.

● Studies on composite materials and adhesives.

● Crosslinking reactions of resins.

● Effects of fillers and additives on mechanical / thermal properties.

o) The principal applications of UV-visible spectrophotometry include:

● The quantitative analysis of a wide range of organic and inorganic species.

● Enzyme assays in biochemical analysis.

p) Typical applications include:

● The rapid multi-element analysis of metals and some non-metals in a wide variety of matrices, ranging from the major constituents of alloy samples to trace metals in biological samples.

q) Typical applications of the technique include:

● Ultratrace levels of metals in aqueous samples.

● Trace metals in biological fluids (where the small sample size and limited pretreatment requirements are advantageous).

● Arsenic and selenium in air sampling filters.

● Aluminium in tea.

r) Typical applications include:

● The analysis of biological samples for their Na or К content.

● Lithium determinations in biological samples in relation to antidepressant drugs.

s) The main application of the technique is for:

● The analysis of fluoride, chloride, nitrate, nitrite, phosphate and sulphate and certain other anions at sub-ppm levels in clean aqueous samples.

t) Typical applications include:

● Determination of amount of solvent, monomer or moisture in a sample.

● Temperature stability and decomposition of a sample.

● Level of inorganic filler or additive from the residual mass at high temperature.

● Analysis of copolymers and blends.

● Oxidation studies of metals, oils and polymers.

u) Typical processes studied by DSC include:

● Class-to-rubber transition in polymers.

● Fusion (melting) of metals, organic compounds and polymers.

● Chemical reaction or decomposition.

● Curing (Crosslinking) processes in resins.

● Crystallisation kinetics.

● Effects of thermal history on subsequent behaviour.

2.10. Translate the sentences from English into Russian paying special attention to the words in italics.

1. Any research starts with setting a research area.

2. Any research area is determined by a number of objective factors.

3. The object of the research is always broader than the subject chosen for research.

4. A research problem is a puzzle which needs solution.

5. In the introduction of the research paper it is necessary to prove that the chosen problem is topical.

6. The objectives of research may corresponds to the order of the chapters of the research paper.

7. Hypotheses may be logical, descriptive and explanatory.

8. If the outcome is consistent with the hypothesis the experiment is said to support the hypothesis.

9. The ultimate value of a formalized hypothesis is that it forces us to think about the results we should look for in an experiment.

10. Confirmability and refutability are two sides of a single coin.

2.11. Restore the logical order of the stages of research.

a) moving a hypothesis

b) defining the object of research

c) setting general area of research

d) analyzing problem situation and stating a problem

e) formulating a research goal

f) developing research methods

g) writing research project

h) specifying the subject of research

i) collecting, describing, processing, interpreting research data

j) determining application areas

k) drawing conclusions, proving a hypothesis and resolving a research puzzle

l) setting objectives

2.12. Analyse the criteria which a good research topic should meet and say whether the research topic you proposed meets these qualifications. Which points are the most significant for you?

A good research topic should meet:

1) Your career goals.

2) Standards set by examining institutions.

3) Your interest in the topic and the necessary research skills.

4) Available time resources.

5) Available finance resources.

6) Access to data required for the topic.

7) Fresh insights into the topic.

8) Clearly defined research questions and objectives.

2.13. Read the paragraph below and give your comments.

Before you start your research you need to have at least some idea of what you want to do. This is probably the most difficult, and yet the most important, part of your research project. Without being clear about what you are going to research it is difficult to plan how you are going to research it. This reminds us of a favourite quote in Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland. This is part of Alice’s conversation with the Cheshire Cat. In this Alice asks the Cat (Carrol, 1989: 63-64):

“Would you tell me, please, which way I ought to walk from here?”

“That depends a good deal on where you want to get to,” said the Cat.

“I don’t much care where,” said Alice.

“Then it doesn’t matter which way you walk,” said the Cat.

Formulating and clarifying the research topic is the starting point of your research project. Once you are clear about this you will be able to choose the most appropriate research strategy and data collection and analysis techniques.

2.14. Analyse the following word combinations and use them to make sentences of your own.

a)

to carry out / to complete / to do / to undertake / to be engaged in / to rely on / to refer to / to give priority to

research

b)

to advance / to formulate / to put forward / to accept / to check / to test / to verify / to contradict / to reject / to prove

a hypothesis

c)

the chief / general / the central / key / the main / particular / the major / primary

aim goal purpose task

of this study / research / paper

is to

investigate / establish / compare / examine / outline / explain / describe / propose / specify / discuss / demonstrate

d)

the present

paper / investigation

focuses on / deals with / is devoted to the problems of / provides insight into / presents a new approach to / inquires into / is aimed at / attempts to explain the mechanism of

e)

complex / contemporary / field / detailed / empirical / experimental / independent / applied / puге

research

f)

research

agenda / Council / grant / team / methods / outcome / paper / paradigm

2.15. Translate the following sentences.

1. В современной науке остается много нерешенных вопросов.

2. Законы классической механики для определенных физических систем в настоящее время принимаются без доказательств.

3. Большое внимание в будущем будет уделяться связи между экспериментальной работой и теоретическими исследованиями.

4. Нобелевская премия была учреждена в 1901 году, и с тех пор она присуждается ежегодно за выдающиеся открытия в различных областях науки и техники.

5. Всё большее число выпускников вузов вовлекается в сферу научно-исследовательской работы, и сам характер работы меняется.

6. Когда мы говорим, что решили какую-то научную проблему, мы, по-видимому, делаем неизбежную ошибку, так как решение одной проблемы, как правило, является началом более глубоких исследований.

7. Чёткая постановка целей и задач облегчает проведение исследования.

8. В этом разделе мы сосредоточим внимание на преимуществах данного метода и на возможных областях его применения.

9. Настоящая работа является результатом исследований, которые провела группа сотрудников центральной лаборатории.

10. Весь материал будет изложен в трёх разделах.

11. Первый раздел будет посвящён обсуждению некоторых общих проблем исследования.

12. Во втором разделе будет дан подробный анализ результатов наблюдений и сделана попытка интерпретировать их с точки зрения современной теории.

13. В третьем разделе мы попытаемся обобщить эти результаты и предложить некоторые выводы.

14. Эйнштейн опубликовал свою первую статью о теории относительности в 1905г.

15. Вначале генетические исследования Г.Менделя не привлекли внимание биологов, и лишь спустя 30 лет заслужили признание.

16. Современный исследователь действительно нуждается в глубоком знании своего предмета и в умении правильно оценить полученные результаты.

17. Необходимо напомнить о тех исследователях, которые были пионерами в данной области знаний.

18. В данной работе будет сделана попытка проанализировать последние данные с точки зрения генетического кода.

19. Существует несколько теорий о происхождении жизни на Земле.

20. Перед началом опыта обычно проверяется вся аппаратура и отбираются образцы материалов.

21. А теперь я перехожу к обсуждению некоторых результатов последних наблюдений, которые дают нам иное представление об этих процессах.

22. Полученные результаты не подтверждают эту теорию, и мы можем сделать вывод о том, что в данном процессе могут участвовать неизвестные нам факторы.

2.16. Render the following in English.

Тема диссертации очерчивает круг исследовательской работы. Актуальность темы исследования должна быть обоснована с позиции того, насколько она отвечает социальным запросам, интересам практики и потребностям науки. Основными объектами могут являться деятельность, отношения, человек. В объекте исследования выделяются конкретные предметы – конкретные проблемы в самой теме. В соответствии с темой выдвигаются цель и задача исследования. Цель исследования – создание новой концепции решения той или иной актуальной проблемы. Для создания концепции необходимы факты и их научный анализ. Цель исследования определяет его задачи, которые, как правило, бывают трех типов: выявление сущности, признаков, критериев изучаемого процесса, явления и на этой основе его характеристики на данном этапе развития; обоснование основных путей решения проблемы; формулировка ведущих и корректирующих условий, обеспечивающих эффективность процесса. Гипотеза – допущение, истинность которого еще не доказана, но вероятна. Различают несколько видов гипотез, соответствующих этапам исследования (первоначальная, описательная, объяснительная, базисная и прогностическая). В квалификационных работах, как правило, на первый план выходит базисная или основная рабочая гипотеза, которая строится на предположении о том, при каких условиях процесс решения той или иной проблемы будет успешным

По материалам д.п.н., профессора А.И. Кочетова «Культура педагогического исследования», Минск, 1996. - С. 56-64

Диссертация – научно-исследовательская работа, подготовленная для публичной защиты и получения ученой степени кандидата или доктора наук.

Диссертация на соискание ученой степени кандидата наук должна быть научной квалификационной работой, в которой содержится решение задачи, имеющей соответствующее значение для соответствующей отрасли знаний, либо изложены научно-обоснованные технические, экономические или технологические разработки, обеспечивающие решение важных прикладных задач.

Диссертация может быть представлять собой специально подготовленную рукопись, может быть выполнена в виде научного доклада, опубликованной монографии.

Наиболее распространенной формой квалификационной научной работы на соискание ученой степени является рукописный труд (имеется в виду отпечатанный с помощью компьютерной техники), в котором излагается актуальность выбранной темы, определяется объект, предмет, цель, гипотеза, задачи исследования, положения, выносимые на защиту выносимые на защиту анализ научной литературы и исследований, проведенных другими авторами по аналогичным темам, описывается опытно-экспериментальная работа, проделанная лично автором диссертации, и даются рекомендации по использованию теоретических и прикладных результатов научного исследования.

Н.И.Аристер, Н.И. Загузов «Процедура подготовки и защиты диссертаций» /М.: АОЗТ Икар, 1995. - С.9-10

2.17. The questions below and your answers guide you in your talk about your research activity. Work in pairs.

1. What is the common name for research projects undertaken for a Doctor of Philosophy degree?

2. What is the object of your research?

3. Do you conduct an individual research or do you work in a team?

4. Why is it important to define clearly research objectives?

5. Which problem is considered to be topical? What can you say about the topicality of your research?

6. What is a research hypothesis?

7. Which requirements should hypotheses meet?

8. Which factors determine the choice of your research area?

9. Which topics should be avoided?

10. What was the point of departure in your research?

11. What is the most difficult for you in your research?

12. What is the difference between research and intelligence gathering?

UNIT 3 ACADEMIC WRITING

3.1. While writing in English for academic purposes linking words are used for logical relationship between sentences or parts of a sentence. The main links (linking words) are grouped below according to the similarity of their meaning. Your task is to study this information carefully.

So, linking devices show:

1) POSITIVE ADDITION

and / both … and / not only / as well / above all / again / what is more / furthermore / also / apart from / in addition to / moreover / besides / too / not to mention the fact that / whereas / while

e.g. Gold is an excellent conductor of electricity, besides, it does not oxidise.

2) NEGATIVE ADDITION

neither … nor / nor / neither / either / not only / but also

e.g. Neither John nor Mary speaks French.

3) CONTRAST

but / not … but / however / instead / on the contrary / although / yet / nevertheless / though / in spite of / but / while / despite / even if / even though / at the same time / on the other hand / regardless of / whereas / at first sight / in comparison

e.g. Killing endangered species is illegal, however, people will not stop hunting them.

4) CHRONOLOGY

initially / at first / then / after this/that / afterwards / next / before this / firstly / in the first place / first of all / to start/begin with / secondly / thirdly / finally / at last / in the end / lastly / eventually

e.g. First of all, we need to decide what problem is. Then, we need to consider all possible solutions. Finally, we must decide on the best alternative.

5) CAUSE / REASON / EFFECT

as / since / because of / owing to / due to / for this reason / a result of / thanks to / in view of / therefore / as a result / consequently / so / as a consequence / hence / thereby / under those circumstances / if so / if not / in that case / thus / otherwise / anyway / at any rate / in any case

e.g. Under the circumstances, the situation cannot be improved.

6) EMPHASIS

in fact / actually / as a matter of fact / in practice / the fact of the matter is that / real / existing as a fact / as a rule / indeed / what is more / in practice / on the whole / in general / generally speaking / to some extent / to a certain extent

e.g. In fact, the report states that most college graduates are interested in pursuing a Master’s degree in the future.

7) CLARIFICATION

clearly / obviously / of course / needless to say / in particular / easy to see that / specifically / in other words / I mean / that is to say / doubtless

e.g. Needless to say, research has proved that eating healthy foods and exercising regularly reduce the risk of heart disease.

8) EXEMPLIFICATION

for example / for instance / such as / like / in particular / particularly / especially / as shown / particularly

e.g. Geology may be defined as the science of the earth’s history as shown by its crust, rocks, etc.

9) SIMILARITY

as far as … is concerned / regarding / with regard to / as for / of this sort / similar to / such as / similarly / likewise / in the same way / equally / correspondingly

e.g. Synthetic polymers, such as PVC, are cheap.

10) COMPARISON

as … as / than / half as … as / nothing like / the … the / twice as

e.g. He finds history easier than geography.

11) MANNER

as / (in) the way / how / the way in which / (in) the same way (as) / as if / as though

e.g. The manager explained how the organisation could increase productivity.

12) CONDITION

if / in case / assuming (that) / on condition (that) / provided (that) / providing (that) / unless / in the event (that) / in the event of / as/so long as / granted/granting (that) / whether / whether … or / only if / even if / otherwise / or (else) / in case of

e.g. The effects are the same whether the radiation is internal or external.

13) PURPOSE

so that / in order (not) to / in order that / for fear (that) / in case

e.g. You should take a few days off in order to finish your report.

14) TIME

when / whenever / as / while / now (that) / before / until / after / till / since / prior to

e.g. Cells are removed and then engineered prior to their reimplantation.

15) PLACE

where / wherever

e.g. That’s the university where I studied.

16) EXCEPTION

but (for) / except (for) / apart from

e.g. Apart from the chairman, nobody spoke.

17) RELATIVE

who / whom / whose / which / what / that

Remember: who is used for people which – for objects and animals

that – for both people and objects

e.g. The man who (whom, that) you saw at the conference was my brother.

18) REFERENCE

considering / concerning / regarding / with (in) respect/regard/reference to / as to / as for / according to / with reference to / as said by / as reported by / depending on / let us (now) turn to

e.g. According to the first law of thermodynamics, heat and work are inter-convertible.

19) SUMMARISING

finally / lastly / above all, all in all, taking everything into account / on the whole / all things considered / in conclusion / as I have said / as was previously stated / to sum up / altogether / in short / briefly / to put it briefly / overall / thus

e.g. On the whole, the university offers a wide range of courses and provides modern facilities.

3.2. Match the two halves of the sentences.

1. It must be six o’clock. No, actually … 2. If you heat copper to 400°C, it becomes viscous, in other words ... 3. The current was too high, as a result... 4. Mercury is a metal, nevertheless ... 5. Amphetamines are dangerous, therefore ... 6. As a rule, water freezes at 0°C, but... 7. Glass is fragile, thus ... 8. The motor was out of date, besides ... 9. Hydrocarbons are relatively light, in fact... 10. Water usually boils at 100°C, however ...

a) it begins to melt. b) they float on water. c) it should be handled with care. d) they should be kept away from children. e) it does not do so if you add salt. f) the wires began to overheat. g) it consumed too much fuel h) it is a fluid. i) at higher altitudes, the temperature is lower. j) it is five past six.

3.3. Fill in the gaps with the following linking words:

A) besides / due to / despite the fact / consequently / despite / namely / although / moreover / hence / thereby

1. Atmospheric ionisation, and …….. electrical conductivity, are low.

2. …….. growing new skin, some salamanders can regenerate whole legs.

3. …….. the sea temperature is only 2°C it can be used as an energy source.

4. Energy loss in transformers is …….. resistance.

5. Gases diffuse slowly …….. high molecular speeds.

6. Aluminium is lighter and …….. it is relatively cheep.

7. The mesosphere is important …….. that it contains only about 0.1 per cent of the total mass of the atmosphere.

8. As a rule, aquatic reptiles use the same means of propulsion as fish and whales, …….. they use powerful beats of the tail.

9. The heat increases, …….. the entropy increases.

10. Cells and antibodies may cooperate, …….. destroying invading bacteria.

B) although / conversely / while / therefore / however / clearly / yet / instead of / thanks to / obvious

1. …….., environmental pollution must be drastically reduced.

2. …….. magnesium is a metal, it burns.

3. During the day, plants produce oxygen, …….., at night, they produce CO₂.

4. Aluminium is a light metal, …….. lead is a heavy one.

5. The immune system destroys most foreign bodies, ….. bacteria continue to kill us.

6. The data is not accurate, …….. the results are not reliable.

7. Gold can be extracted from sea water, …….. it is not commercially economical.

8. …….. using copper, silver was used.

9. It is now …….. that world climate is changing.

10. …….. a grant, he managed to finish his research.

C) unless / otherwise / since / hence / to sum up / either … or / thereby / whereas / while / regardless of

1. The gas is compressed, …….. increasing the temperature.

2. Fusion will not occur …….. the temperature is raised to a million degrees,

3. Life expectancy for women is 83, …….. for men, it is 79.

4. …….. searching for trilobites the bone fossils were discovered.

5. The transistors must be cooled by liquid nitrogen, …….. they will overheat.

6. Asteroids, …….. size, rotate on their axes every 5 to 20 hours.

7. No hypothesis can be elaborated …….. the data is unreliable.

8. You can buy …….. a diesel …….. a petrol car.

9. Certain stars are much brighter and …….. much larger.

10. …….., the seminar was a complete waste of time.

D) even though / in spite of / regarding / and yet / whereas / except for / in order to / as a rule / nevertheless / actually

1. Write the report …….. the points we discussed last week.

2. Geologists are using radio-active analysis of rocks more, …….. it is not suitable in every case.

3. It was an interesting conference, …….. one speaker who was boring.

4. She applied for the job …….. she wasn’t suitably qualified.

5. London is a very noisy city …….. I like it.

6. I can’t cook …….. my husband can.

7. They introduced new measures …….. control the situation.

8. …….., metals are inflammable.

9. When I was at school I was good at most subjects …….. maths.

10. Most people think that Fleming was the father of penicillin, but …….. most of the work was done by Florey.

E) hardly ever / or else / doubtless / scarcely / unless / via / namely / instead of / the latter / neither ….. nor

1. …….. helium …….. krypton form chemical compounds.

2. Natural hazards, …….., floods, hurricanes and famines, are frequently man-made.

3. Silver may be used …….. using copper.

4. Gold and silver are both precious metals, however the …….. is less expensive.

5. …….. industrial output is reduced, an ecological crisis is inevitable.

6. Pharmacology was …….. well developed in Babylonian civilisation.

7. Temperature can be expressed in Fahrenheit, …….. in Celsius.

8. The importance of Newton can …….. be exaggerated.

9. Apart from carbon, elements …….. …….. form chains of more than 8 atoms.

10. Viruses are spread through the body …….. the blood system.

3.4. Using the following link words develop the ideas given in the sentences below.

● in addition / furthermore / besides

● however / nevertheless / yet / in spite of / on the other hand

● but actually / but in reality / in fact

● obviously / clearly / doubtless

● in general / on the whole / as a rule

● in other words / that is to say / namely

● consequently / therefore / thus

1. Gold is a very expensive metal…

2. The first atomic bomb was dropped in 1945…

3. Oil reserves will run out by the middle of the next century…

4. There is more and more congestion in the town centre…

5. The research process is a rational and straightforward…

6. When the collaboration between IBM and Digital Research failed, IBM turned to Bill Gates, then 25 years old, to write their operating system…

7. Your research philosophy depends on the way that you think about the development of knowledge…

8. The object of the research must be always broader than the subject chosen for research…

9. Nobody needs to be told that theories should be confirmable…

10. We need to be reminded from time to time that we might be wrong…

3.5. Choose the correct answer.

1. The device enables temperatures to be monitored, …. improving the safety margin.

a) thereby b) nevertheless c) namely d) e.g.

2. A new technique, …….. the infra-red camera, means that dust surrounding new stars can be penetrated.

a) whereas b) namely с) besides d) for instance

3. Superconducting, …….. when materials lose all resistance, will boost computer performances.

a) thus b) obviously с) besides d) that is to say

4. Programmable electronic systems are more reliable …….., they can be used to

handle radio-active material.

a) whereas b)such с) moreover d) in other words

5. Computers can process data extremely fast. ……... this, they have several serious drawbacks.

a) in spite of b) whereas с) however d) moreover

6. The new engine is far more efficient. …….. more work is required to reduce noise levels.

a) nevertheless b) whereas c) i.e. d) besides

7. The presence of high concentrations of elements that are rarely found on Earth, …….. iridium, suggests there was a meteorite impact at that spot.

a) on the whole b) moreover c) such as d) that is to say

8. The data is stored on hard disk, …….. it is easily accessible.

a) actually b) whereas с) e.g. d) hence

9. Applicants for the job should speak at least one other European language .... French.

a) obviously b) besides с) moreover d) actually

10. …….., in the initial stages there were minor problems to be overcome, but from then on, the prototypes were perfectly reliable.

a) besides b) as a rule с) namely d) despite

3.6. Read the texts below and replace the words in bold by synonyms or explanations.

A) Globally, forests cover nearly one third of the land area and they contain over 80% of terrestrial biodiversity. Both the extent and quality of forest habitat continue to decrease and the associated loss of biodiversity jeopardizes forest ecosystem functioning and the ability of forests to provide ecosystem services. In the light of the increasing population pressure, it is of major important not only to conserve, but also to restore forest ecosystems.

Moreover ecological restoration has recently started to adopt insights from the biodiversity-ecosystem functioning (BEF) perspective. Obviously central is the focus on restoring the relation between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Here we provide an overview of important considerations related to forest restoration that can be inferred from this BEF-perspective.

Restoring multiple forest functions requires multiple species. It is highly unlikely that species-poor plantations, which may be optimal for above-ground biomass production, will outperform species diverse assemblages for a combination of functions, including overall carbon storage and control over water and nutrient flows. Above all restoring stable forest functions also requires multiple species. In particular in the light of global climatic change scenarios, which predict more frequent extreme disturbances and climatic events, it is important to incorporate insights from the relation between biodiversity and stability of ecosystem functioning into forest restoration projects. Rather than focusing on species per se, focusing on functional diversity of tree species assemblages seems appropriate when selecting tree species for restoration. Finally also plant genetic diversity and above-below-ground linkages should be considered during the restoration process, as these likely have prominent but until now poorly understood effects at the level of the ecosystem.

The BEF-approach provides a useful framework to evaluate forest restoration in an ecosystem functioning context, but it also highlights that much remains to be understood, especially regarding, the relation between forest functioning on the one side and genetic diversity and above-ground-below-ground species associations on the other. On the whole the strong emphasis of the BEF-approach on functional rather than taxonomic diversity mау also be the beginning of a paradigm shift in restoration ecology, increasing the tolerance towards allochthonous species.

B) People are always talking about fundamental research, implying thereby the existence of a nameless opposite. A good definition of fundamental research will certainly be welcomed: let us see whether we can invent one. We have to begin of course, by defining research. Unfortunately the concept of research contains a negative element. Research is searching without knowing what you are going to find: if you know what you are going to find you have already found it, and your activity is not research. Now, since the outcome of your research is unknown, how can you know whether it will be fundamental. We may say for instance that fundamental research is that which you undertake without caring whether the results will be of practical value or not may not be reasonable to go further and say that fundamental research is that which will be abandoned as soon as it shows a sign of leading to results of practical value. By saying this you may limit your own achievement. It will be better to say that fundamental research is that which may have no immediate practical value. I do not think that the definition is very pleasing to the theorists, for some problems are obviously solved more quickly by experimenters than by theorists. Another viewpoint is that theory serves to suggest new experiments. This is sound, but it makes the theorist the handman of the experimentator, and he maybe not like this auxiliary role.

C) Winter Storms Have Grown More Devastating

by Liz Osborn © Current Results Nexus

Severe winter storms that leave behind million of dollars in damage have become less common in the United States over the last five decades. But at the same time, individual storms have become more massive and destructive. Climatologists suspect that these changes in winter weather are a consequence of global warming.

Between 1949 and 2003, the continental US faced 202 catastrophic winter storms, each causing over one million dollars in damage. They dumped freezing rain and snow, usually propelled by strong winds, and in some cases were followed by rapid thawing that led to floods.

The northeastern states were frequently hit by devastating weather. New York had the most storms of any state, at 83, followed by Pennsylvania with 77. Idaho and Arizona got off relatively lightly compared to the rest of the nation, with three severe storms apiece.

The winter storm track, however, has gradually moved farther south. States in the south-central US now see storms more often in winter, particularly Texas where they have doubled in number since the 1960s and 1970s. Overall though, large blizzards have become less common, dropping from an average for the country of 39 per decade to 30.

While there are fewer storms, recent ones cover greater area. During the 1950s and early 1960s, a winter storm would travel through an average of five or six states. By the late 1990s, that figure had nearly doubled to ten states per storm.

Altogether the 202 major blizzards left damage costing $35.2 billion in 2003 US dollars. A single snowstorm that swept through most of the eastern states from March 11 to 14 in 1993 accounted for $1.8 billion of the expense. The eastern half of the continental US received the brunt of losses, amounting to 88% of insurance claims between 1949 to 2003.

Blizzards in recent years have been exceptionally severe and costly. A fiscal calibration of the damage from each storm, used to measure a storm’s intensity, reveals a huge rise in a typical storm’s fury. During the late 1970s, storm cleanup averaged $8.4 million per state. That has climbed to $40 million per state in recent years.

Storms are particularly bigger and more damaging across the southern two-thirds of the country. Average recovery costs per storm in the south have nearly tripled since 1964.

(http://www.currentresults.com/Climate-Change/Weather/winter-708211.php)

D) Agriculture Increases River Flows

by Liz Osborn © Current Results Nexus

Clearing forests to grow crops has added to the amount of water that runs off of land into rivers by 2.5% in North America and 6% in Asia over the last three centuries. That’s because crops pump less moisture into the atmosphere through evaporation and plant transpiration than do forests.

The hydrological impact of converting land to agriculture has been countered somewhat by irrigation. Watering of crops contributes to evapotranspiration while decreasing runoff. Irrigation’s influence on lowering river flows is most evident in the western US and Mexico during summer.

Still, even with irrigation factored in, some regions have considerably altered hydrological cycling since 1700. The greatest extent is in Southeast Asia where water draining into the Pacific Ocean has increased by 11%. In North America, 3.5% more freshwater flows into the Gulf of Mexico.

The largest changes to river flow, though, are the seasonal ones created by dams. In general, reservoirs produce larger runoff volumes in winter and less during spring snowmelt compared with natural regimes. Consequently, modelling of hydrological dynamics shows that reservoirs draining into the Arctic Ocean have caused influxes of water to be 20 to 40% higher in March.

(http://www.currentresults.com/Water/Rivers/agriculture.php)

E) Northern US Forests Have Lost Biodiversity

by Liz Osborn © Current Results Nexus

Researchers conclude that a commonly-held belief, that forests of northern Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan have recovered from rapid, wide-spread logging of over a century ago, is not entirely true. Where trees have grown back, the forests are now quite different from the original ones that were cut down.

Forests throughout the Laurentian Mixed Forest Province are less diverse than their predecessors. In the early 1800s, conifers dominated 59% of an ecoregion’s forests, on average, but now form the canopy in only 32% of forests. Eastern hemlock, pine and tamarack have particularly declined in abundance. Significant reductions have also occurred in forests with large amounts of beech or yellow birch.

Taking the place of these species across the 257,000 km² Great Lakes region are aspen and maple. Forests dominated by aspen have expanded to five times their area before logging, while maples have doubled their cover. These deciduous trees benefit, in part, from current timber harvesting practices.

Consequently, forests throughout northern portions of the three states have become more uniform. Fewer species of trees commonly make up forest canopies, resulting in a loss of biodiversity and structural complexity. The forests have not recovered to what they were in the days before European settlement, but are now entirely new, simplified ecosystems.

In addition, only some of the cleared land has become reforested. On average, 59% of the land area is growing trees now, compared with 88% before clearing began 150 years ago. Agricultural crops and pasturelands have especially replaced forests in Wisconsin and in central portions of Minnesota and Michigan, where unforested land covers 85% of some ecoregions.

(http://www.currentresults.com/Forests/Eastern-NA/northern-708071.php)

F) History of computer science

The earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern digital computer. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks such as the abacus have existed since antiquity. Wilhelm Schickard designed the first mechanical calculator in 1623, but did not complete its construction. Blaise Pascal designed and constructed the first working mechanical calculator, the Pascaline, in 1642. Charles Babbage designed a difference engine and then a general-purpose Analytical Engine in Victorian times, for which Ada Lovelace wrote a manual. Because of this work she is regarded today as the world’s first programmer. Around 1900, punched card machines were introduced.

During the 1940s, as newer and more powerful computing machines were developed, the term computer came to refer to the machines rather than their human predecessors. As it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study computation in general. Computer science began to be established as a distinct academic discipline in the 1950s and early 1960s. The world’s first computer science degree program, the Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science, began at the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory in 1953.

Although many initially believed it was impossible that computers themselves could actually be a scientific field of study, in the late fifties it gradually became accepted among the greater academic population. It is the now well-known IBM brand that formed part of the computer science revolution during this time. IBM (short for International Business Machines) released the IBM 704 and later the IBM 709 computers, which were widely used during the exploration period of such devices. “Still, working with the IBM [computer] was frustrating ... if you had misplaced as much as one letter in one instruction, the program would crash, and you would have to start the whole process over again.” During the late 1950s, the computer science discipline was very much in its developmental stages, and such issues were commonplace.

Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of computer science technology. Modern society has seen a significant shift from computers being used solely by experts or professionals to a more widespread user base. Initially, computers were quite costly, and for their most-effective use, some degree of human aid was needed, in part by professional computer operators. However, as computers became widespread and far more affordable, less human assistance was needed, although residues of the original assistance still remained.

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science)

3.7. Read the sentences below and substitute the proper English linking devices for the Russian words in brackets.

1. In 1555 Nostradamus predicted the end of the world for AD 3797, (тем не менее) most people think this is rather doubtful.

2. Some scientists now agree that the extinction of the dinosaurs might have been caused by an asteroid impact. I (полностью) support this theory.

3. (Без сомнения) the traditional role of science is to make people healthy and the world a brighter place to live in.

4. (Для того, чтобы) we may know something of the people who invaded England in 1060 we must go back a little.

5. Geography may be defined as the science of the earth’s surface. It is concerned with a number of features, (особенно) physical, climate and products.

6. Australia is the driest continent. (Именно поэтому) some biologists claim that water requirements for agriculture are exhausting the soil and the country is heading for ecological collapse.

7. The effects of global warming are (прежде всего) visible in the Arctic.

8. (Поскольку) you are a postgraduate student you are always pressed of time.

9. (Действительно), a person needs specific knowledge to be able to talk of the things that are far from being everyone’s competence.

10. Previous experiments in this area were (очевидно) unsuccessful. (Более того), they were limited in scale and material.

11. (Что касается) to population, Egypt is much bigger than Canada.

12. (Хотя) Belgium has the largest percentage arable land area, it has the smallest percentage agricultural pollution.

3.8. Read the text below and substitute the proper English linking devices for the Russian words in brackets.