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Verbals

The various forms that a verb can take fall into two main divisions: finite and non-finite (verbals). The latter are the infinitive (to discuss), the gerund (discussing), participle I (discussing), participle II (discussed).

General characteristics: a) non-finite forms possess the categories of voice, perfect and aspect; b) non-finites are not restricted in number and person by any grammatical subject; c) they combine the characteristics of a verb with those of some other part of speech; d) verbals cannot form a predicate by themselves but they can function as part of a compound verbal predicate: She suddenly began to speak; They were caught stealing the jewellery.

All non-finites may be part of the so-called predicative constructions: I didn’t expect you to come; He found her crying bitterly; I had the piano tuned.

I. Infinitive

The infinitive names a process in a most general way. It combines verbal features (morphological and syntactical) with those of the noun.

Split infinitive

In all its forms and functions the infinitive has a special marker, the particle to. It is occasionally separated from the infinitive by some other words, more often an adverb or emphatic particles: They were seen to just touch each other’s hands.

This separation is acceptable only to give special emphasis to the verb.

Bare infinitive

The infinitive is used without to in the following cases:

after auxiliary verbs;

after modal verbs (except ought to, have to, be to) and modal expressions had better, would rather, would sooner: She’d sooner die than forgive;

after verbs of sense perception (see, hear, feel, watch, notice, observe, listen to, etc.) in the construction Complex Object: I heard him arrive.

However, in passive sentences with these verbs we use a to-infinitive: He was overheard to say that he hoped Mike would reject the offer; She was noticed to hesitate;

after causative verbs let, make, have (also in the construction Complex Object): The boss is not going to let me stay; They made me reduce my expenditures (But! - He was made to rewrite his introduction letter);

after the verb to know in the meaning “to experience, to observe” (usually used in the perfect form): Have you ever known him tell a lie?;

after phrases with but (cannot but, do anything but, do nothing but, couldn’t but): He cannot but accept it;

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in “why-not” sentences: Why not let me help you?;

if two infinitives are joined by ‘and’ or ‘or’, the to of the second infinitive can be omitted: I want to call Mr Smith and fax or send him a message. Remember fairly idiomatic phrases: hear tell, make believe, and let (it) slip:

I never heard tell of it! (= was never told/ had no idea); He made believe that he had settled everything himself (= pretended); She let (it) slip that she's getting married (= said it unintentionally).

Notice also the phrases make do and let go: Mary borrowed my trendy summer dress, so I had to make do with the old one (it wasn't the one I wanted); Let go of my hand! (relax grip on).

To-infinitive

Remember the verbs after which the to-infinitive is used:

(can/can’t) afford, agree, aim, appear, arrange, ask, claim, consent, decide, decline, demand, expect, fail, hesitate, hope, hurry, learn, manage, offer, plan, prepare, pretend, promise, refuse, seem, tend, threaten, volunteer, want, wish, etc.: He threatened to dismiss the strike leader; The shop refused to accept the customer’s credit card;

would like, would love, would prefer (to express specific preference): I’d love to live in a more spacious apartment.

Some verbs may be followed either by a to-infinitive or an object + to- infinitive: I prefer to cook/ I prefer you to cook (= you do the cooking).

Other verbs like this include can bear (in negative sentences and in questions), need, hate, help, like, love, want, wish.

Notice that after help we can use either a to-infinitive or bare infinitive: He helped me (to) net a handsome profit.

The to-infinitive is also used after certain nouns: What a surprise to see him there! It’s a great chance to talk to him; after too/enough constructions: I was foolish enough to believe her; with ‘it + be + adjective + of’: It was nice of Joe to congratulate us on our anniversary (see Syntactic functions).

Repetition of the particle to

For the sake of emphasis or contrast the particle to may be repeated before each of the infinitives: It’s such a delight, you know, to go into the field and to pick up a sweet spring flower!

The particle to is sometimes used without any infinitive if the latter is clearly understood from the previous context: You can stay if you want to! It is common after the verbs to want, wish, mean, try, allow, be going, ought, have (as a modal verb), should (would) like.

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Ex.1. Complete the following sentences paying attention to the use of

2.When in a tight corner don’t hesitate …

3.When a child, I used to make my younger brother …

Ex.2. Underline all the infinitives adding to where it is required.

Two friends, Jane and Mark, are talking.

J: Mark, where were you last night? I tried find you but couldn’t see you anywhere. James says he didn’t see you come in to the party.

M: Yes, that’s right. I’m sorry. My parents wouldn’t let me come out last night. I wanted see you – honestly I did.

J: Why did your parents make you stay in? They usually allow you go out in the evenings, don’t they?

M: Yes, but I hadn’t finished doing my homework. And they refused let me go out until I had.

J: Oh dear, poor you. Oh well, never mind. Let’s do something tonight instead.

M: OK. Actually, I’d like see that new film.

J: Would you? I suppose it might be quite good but I’d rather just go out to the cafe. I was hoping have a chance talk to you properly.

M: Well, why not do both? We could go to the early showing of the film and then go to the cafe.

J: I’m not sure I can afford go to the cinema. M: That’s all right. I’ve got some money.

J: So what time would you like meet, then?

M: Six o’clock I suppose – in the cinema. I’ll try get there a bit earlier and buy the tickets.

Ex.3. Report the sentences using one of these verbs and a to-infinitive. Use each verb once:

agree encourage intend invite advise promise refuse volunteer threaten expect hesitate manage tend fail

Model: You can’t borrow the car! – He refused to lend me the car.

1. I’ll phone you soon. He...

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2.I’m looking forward to seeing him. We’ve arranged to meet on Sunday. I …

3.I’m going to quit my job. I …

4.It wasn’t easy but we drove home in two hours. We …

5.They were not able to hand in their essays in time. They …

6.Okay, I’ll come with you. He...

7.I’m not sure whether I should I tell you the truth. I ….

8.Would you like to go out for dinner? He...

9.No problem, I’ll work at the weekend. He...

10.Don’t go out without an umbrella. He...

11.“Believe me, we’ll expel you!” cried the principal. The principal …

12.You really should continue the course. He...

13.She is in the habit of being late for appointments. She …

Ex.4. Open the brackets using the infinitive with or without to:

Mark and Emma are at the railway station. Emma is going away for the weekend.

Mark: Are you sure you’ll … (be) all right?

Emma: Yes, of course. I’m not a child. I can manage … (look) after myself. Mark: OK, sorry.

Emma: Some friends have invited me … (visit) them. I’m not going to the North Pole.

Mark: You’ll be glad … (see) your old friends again. I just know you’re going … (have) lots of fun. Let me … (buy) you a magazine … (read) on the train.

Emma: I can’t … (read) when I’m travelling. It makes me … (feel) sick. I’d rather just … (look) out of the window.

Mark: OK. You’d better … (get) in. I think it’s about … (leave). Oh, did I remind you … (change) at York?

Emma: Yes, Mark, you did. Don’t worry, I won’t … (forget). I know perfectly well how … (get) there.

Ex.5. There is at least one mistake in each sentence. Suggest appropriate corrections:

1.Very reluctantly, he consented her to lend some money to Janet.

2.My parents always encouraged work hard at school.

3.I think we should let them to stay until the weekend.

4.Sam promised to show me how fish for salmon, but he didn’t manage finding the time.

5.Hospital workers had to make to do with a 1.5% pay increase this year.

6.They let me to borrow their car while they were on holiday.

7.I’d rather to stay in tonight.

8.They allowed leave their luggage in the lounge.

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9. His stepmother made him to do all the household chores.

Ex.6. Translate into English.

1. Я не могу не восхищаться его силой воли и выносливостью. 2. Вам бы лучше пройти курс лечения в зарубежной клинике. 3. Он продал антиквариат по дешёвке (to let). 4. Мои подопечные отказались принимать участие в конкурсе. 5. Производители пообещали не поднимать цены на товары первой необходимости. 6. Не смешите меня! 7. Я скорее уволюсь, чем допущу бездействие сотрудников! 8. Как вы смеете говорить такое! 9. Не могу не согласиться с вами. 10. Тина не могла не понимать, что её оставили с носом в очередной раз! 11. Она сделала вид, что её никогда ранее не представляли консулу. 12. Я предпочёл бы не связываться с ними. 13. Меня заставили подписать этот договор. 14. Вы у меня за это заплатите! 15. Она согласилась бросить работу, чтобы не сердить его. 16. Звоните, не стесняйтесь! 17. Почему бы не отложить собрание до конца недели? 18. Натали проговорилась, что собирается переехать и жить отдельно от мужа. 19. У нас нет времени на поход по магазинам, давай обойдёмся тем, что есть в холодильнике.

The grammatical categories of the infinitive

1. Revise the grammatical meanings of ‘perfect’, ‘aspect’ and ‘voice’ categories. What does the perfect infinitive used after the verbs expressing hope, expectation, intention (in the past tense forms) indicate?

Retroactive infinitive. The active form of the infinitive may have a passive meaning: There was only one problem to solve. It can be replaced by the corresponding passive form: He is to forgive → He is to be forgiven; She’s not to blame → She’s not to be blamed. The active infinitive thus used is called retroactive.

NB!

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Other verbs in this pattern include advise, allow, ask, believe, consider, expect, feel, instruct, mean, order, report, require, tell, understand. In some contexts it is possible to make both verbs passive: Changes to the taxation system are expected to be proposed; She was required to be interviewed. Some verbs followed by an object + to-infinitive in the active have no passive forms:

Susan liked Tom to be there (but not *Tom was liked to be there). Other verbs like this include (can’t) bear, hate, love, need, prefer, want, wish.

NB!

Other verbs in this pattern include: 1) appear, begin, come, continue, seem, tend; 2) agree, aim, attempt, hope, refuse, struggle, try. The verbs in the first group (and start) have corresponding meanings in active and passive sentences, but the verbs in the second group do not. Compare: People came to recognize her as the leading violinist of her generation (active). It corresponds to She came to be recognized as the leading violinist of her generation (passive); but (see verbs from Group 2): The team captain hoped to select Kevin (active) does not correspond to Kevin hoped to be selected by the team captain (passive).

Ex.7. Write the appropriate form of the infinitive.

Model: She fell asleep – (She seems) to have fallen asleep.

Ex.8. Translate the sentences into Russian and comment on the grammatical categories of the infinitives.

1. He has a great desire to be invited to Nick’s stag party. 2. Paul seems to have finished his work. 3. They were to have turned up yesterday. 4. The sky seems to be brightening up. 5. The question is difficult to answer. 6. I hoped to have met him there. 7. The leaves begin to be growing yellowish. 8. She was born to be admired and adored. 9. There was only one message to send. 10. I am glad to have been speaking to you.

Ex.9. Put the verbs in brackets into the perfect infinitive. Use to where necessary.

1. Please come in. I’m sorry … (keep) you waiting.

Ex.10. Fill in the gaps using infinitives (some may be continuous or

she’s gone. She was with someone.

Ex.11. Fill in the correct form of the infinitives (pay attention to the use of Active and Passive Voice).

1. His greatest ambition is … (choose) to take part in the Olympics. 2. Stop pretending … (eat) your food – just finish it up, please. 3. I don’t like … (interrupt). 4. The suspect claimed … (watch) TV at the time of the robbery. 5. We’re waiting for his first novel … (publish). 6. She has nobody … (speak). 7. Listen carefully, I don’t want … (misunderstand). 8. He is pleased … (appoint) to this position. 9. She is lucky … (find) such a nice place … (live) in. 10. He is a very touchy person. He can’t bear … (joke). 11. It was so dark outside that nothing at all could … (see). 12. This is the book … (skim) before the tutorial starts. 13. … (instruct) by an excellent specialist was a great advantage. 14. I believe she deserves … (know) the state of her sick cousin. 15. I hate …

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(bother) you, but the students are still waiting … (give) books for their work. 16. We intended to camp in one of the inlets … (find) round that tiny shore.

Ex.12. Correct these sentences if necessary.

1.Ken was wanted to be the leader of the party.

2.I had been taught to be played chess by the time I was four.

3.Monica is considered to be the best student in the class.

4.Derek is hated to be away from home so often.

5.Jane is preferred to ride her bike where her parents can see her.

6.The window appeared to crack in a number of places.

Ex.13. Make passive sentences beginning with the underlined word(s).

Does your sentence have a corresponding meaning to the original, or a different meaning?

1.The Japanese visitors struggled to understand James.

2.The questions appeared to confuse David.

3.The teacher tended to ignore the girls at the front.

4.Lesley refused to congratulate Tim.

Ex.14. Translate into English:

1. Наша задача будет состоять в том, чтобы исследовать семантические и морфологические особенности этих языковых единиц. 2. Вам следовало сдержать своё обещание. 3. To, что он увидел в комнате, должно быть, сильно напугало его. 4. Я намеревался выехать на следующий день (но не выехал). 5. Мария очень надеется, что её назначат на должность начальника отдела продаж. 6. Он намеревался снять номер-люкс на верхнем этаже (но не снял). 7. Мистер Блэк рассчитывал сдать проект финансирования дошкольных детских учреждений к концу месяца (но не успел). 8. На их запрос необходимо было ответить в первую очередь. 9. Тебе следовало выбрать другую тему курсовой работы. 10. Я хочу, чтобы мне сообщили о возможной задержке этой партии товара. 11. Я очень рад, что меня взяли на работу. 12. Мне жаль, что я причиняю вам столько хлопот. 13. Я счастлива, что меня пригласили на новый спектакль в «Театр комедии». 14. Лиза так расстроена! Должно быть, она поругалась с приятелем. 15. Ему необязательно было заступаться за меня.

Syntactic functions of the infinitive

the infinitive as subject:

To succeed in this job requires more time and energy than I actually have; It’s hard to take a decision;

the infinitive as part of the predicate:

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1. as predicative in compound nominal predicates:

Our aim is to master English; Your duty will be to fetch the kids from school, to feed them, to help them do their homework.

Abstract nouns that can function as the subject of a compound nominal predicate with an infinitive-predicative:

The function of the subject may be also performed by the pronoun all or the substantivized superlatives the most and the least with an attributive clause attached to them: All she wanted was not to be punished; The least he can do is to sort out these papers;

2. the infinitive as part of a compound verbal predicate:

She ought to have warned me; You had better stop fighting (as part of a compound verbal modal predicate);

They continued to talk shop; He began to think we had forgotten about him (as part of a compound verbal phasal predicate);

3. as simple nominal predicate:

Me – to accept your proposal! Why not leave her alone?

the infinitive as object:

The assistant managed to sort out the problem; I hesitate to say this (after the verbs which take only one object); All parents should encourage their offsprings to study hard at school (after the verbs which take two objects – the 1st is a noun or a pronoun and the second an infinitive). The infinitive may function as object after certain adjectives (adjectivized participles) which can be divided into two groups:

Remember some rather common phrases used with the infinitive-object: can afford, can’t bear, make sure, make up one’s mind, take care, take the trouble.

NB: the infinitive as object after the introductory it: verb + it + adj/ noun + to-infinitive

1. find it difficult/ hard/ interesting/ pointless/ etc. to do smth think it impolite/ foolish/ one’s duty/ etc. to do smth

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consider it reasonable/ tactless/ an honour/ etc. to do smth

I find (that) it (is) impolite to interrupt people. → I find it impolite to interrupt people.

He thought (that) it (was) his duty to help her. → He thought it his duty to help her.

B. make it a point / a rule to do smth

make it painful/ difficult/ necessary (for smb) to do smth

He makes it an invariable rule not to give anything to beggars. My mother’s illness made it impossible for her to walk.

the infinitive as attribute:

It’s not a thing to trifle with (mind that an attributive infinitive often retains the preposition); The amount to be paid includes the cost of packing; He was always the first to offer help.

the infinitive as adverbial modifier of several types:

In order to get a pay rise she began to work overtime (of purpose); He turned up at the party to hear that his girl had already left (of subsequent events: = He turned up and heard ... ; the infinitive denotes an action that follows the one expressed by the predicate and is used in the non-perfect non-continuous forms); Paul was too exhausted to get down to his work (= He was so exhausted that he couldn’t get down to his work); He’s tall enough to reach it; I am not such a fool as to withdraw this offer (of consequence); She was driven away, never to revisit this place again (of attendant circumstances: the infinitive is used in the non-perfect, common aspect, active form and denotes other actions that take place at the same time as the action of the predicate); She moved her hand as if to stop him (of comparison or manner; it is introduced by than, as if, as though); I’ll thank you to keep it secret (of condition: =I’ll thank you if you keep…; What can I do but tender my resignation? (of exception; it is introduced by the prepositions but and except); My great-grandmother lived to be ninety-nine (of time); They are so careless not to check everything before they leave! (of cause or motivation: the action denoted by the infinitive serves as a cause or a motivation on which the characterization of people’s behavior, intellectual qualities, etc. is based).

Infinitive phrases

1. Infinitive may form part of a conjunctive infinitive phrase which is used in different functions in a sentence:

What to do was beyond him (subject); He completely forgot how to handle a loom (object); His difficulty was how to break the silence (predicative); He knew no one with whom to start a new business (attribute).

NB! After what, which, whose, how many and how much we can use a noun: Sarah and Mark were discussing what colour to paint the walls; We wondered whose story to believe – both drivers said it wasn’t their fault.

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We can use whether but not if: We’ll have to decide whether to go ahead with the project (or not). NOT We’ll have to decide if to go ahead.

Before the question word we can also use the adjectives clear, obvious and sure and the expressions have an idea and make up your mind: I wasn’t sure who to ask for help. A preposition (e.g. of) can come before the question word: I have a good idea (of) how to get the treasure; There’s the question of who to invite to the function.

2. Infinitives also occur in so-called parenthetical phrases: To tell the truth, we’re going to conceal our policies and objectives.

Remember some common phrases with the infinitive: leaves much to be desired,

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b) Make up your own sentences.

Model: be difficult → It was difficult to leave the parental shelter and set up my

Ex.17. Translate into English using infinitives as adverbial modifiers.

1. Я попросил бы Вас не вмешиваться не в своё дело! 2. Ему не оставалось ничего другого, кроме как пойти им навстречу. 3. В то время губернатор недостаточно хорошо себя чувствовал, чтобы сопровождать нас в поездке на Север. 4. Том был слишком раздражён, чтобы продолжить беседу спокойным тоном. 5. Свет был недостаточно ярким, чтобы я мог видеть выражение его лица. 6. Павел был слишком робок, чтобы заговорить с девушкой или даже рассмотреть её как следует. 7. Он хорошо знает испанский и способен прочесть этот роман в оригинале. 8. Я был настолько глуп, что поверил ей!

Ex.18. Complete the sentences using infinitives as attributes.

Model: He has no desire … - He has no desire to propose to her; We have the power … - We have the power to veto their project.

1. All citizens must enjoy the right … 2. There are three reasonable ways … 3. Do you see any reason … 4. A food processor is a very useful gadget … 5. I have no intention … 6. My niece/nephew has always had the ability … 7. Please, give me something … 8. I’m often the last … 9. I’m sure you’ll be the first …

Ex.19. Translate the sentences.

1. Твой внук уволился с работы?! Какая неожиданность! 2. Вопрос в том, можем ли мы позволить себе назначить ему такой высокий гонорар? 3. Нечему завидовать, комфорт – это ещё не всё, что нужно для счастья. 4. С ним шутки плохи! 5. Давайте поиграем в пиратов! (pretend). 6. Мы не намерены подавать на них в суд. 7. Джек первым сделал копии необходимых документов. 8. Ты выглядишь усталым, тебе лучше отдохнуть, выпить чашечку кофе… – Да нет, я, пожалуй, закончу работу. 9. Анна не знает, записываться ли ей на приём к врачу (sure). 10. Признать свои ошибки никогда не поздно. 11. Я содрогаюсь при одной мысли об этом! 12. Я объелся! 13. У меня есть хорошая идея, как достать эту рукопись. 14. Я не понимаю, почему вы откладываете обсуждение этого вопроса (fail). 15. Он не такой человек, который бы стыдился своих поступков. 16. У нас есть вопрос, который нужно срочно решить.

17.Управляющий был последним, кто потребовал от него объяснений.

18.Делать нечего, придётся удовлетворить его требования. 19. – Мне

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нечего делать! – Может, начнёшь готовиться к экзамену? 20. Мне нужно рассортировать письма. 21. Никто лучше него не расскажет, что произошло в тот день (the best). 22. Она была единственной, кто согласился взять слово. 23. Женщины проводят больше времени, занимаясь домашними делами и воспитанием детей (tend). 24. Боюсь, ничего нельзя сделать. 25. Будьте добры, помогите мне отодвинуть диван, пожалуйста (Would you be …). 26. Он последним прошёл паспортный контроль.

Ex.20. Complete the sentences using infinitive phrases with connectives where, how, why, etc. and define the function of these phrases. Make the sentences true for you.

1.When I was young I used to show other children …

2.….. appeared to be the biggest problem I had ever faced.

3.After graduation no one could explain to me …

4.I have always wanted to know …

5.I’m absolutely convinced that every school-leaver should be taught …

6.When I meet new people I don’t know …

7.I’ve already made up my mind …

8.… was our main problem.

Ex.21. Complete the paragraph about a man coming out of prison. Use infinitive phrases. Add some more tips appropriate in this situation.

How should he start a new life? What can he expect? What should he do? Who can he contact?

This man will have problems when he leaves prison. He needs advice on how to start a new life. After a long time in prison, he isn’t sure … / has no

Ex.22. Give the English equivalents for the following infinitive phrases and use them in the sentences of your own.

Честно говоря, для начала, не говоря уж о …, как это ни странно, короче говоря, чтобы быть более точным, мягко говоря, в довершение всего, нет нужды говорить, чтобы быть абсолютно откровенным.

Ex.23. Translate the sentences.

1. Начнём с того, что у вас недостаточно опыта для того, чтобы возглавить этот отдел. 2. Начальник отдела кадров – очень милая женщина. С ней приятно иметь дело. 3. Как это ни странно, его всё-таки назначили главным менеджером. 4. Моей тёще трудно угодить. Она всегда в плохом настроении, ворчит и придирается к дочке, не говоря уже о её беспочвенной ревности к собственному мужу. 5. Сказать по правде, я