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I. R. Galperln’s classification of expressive means and stylistic devices

1. Phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices.

2. Lexical expressive means and stylistic devices.

3. Syntactical expressive means and stylistic devices.

1. Phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices:

1) onomatopoeia (direct and indirect): ding-dong; silver bells... tin­kle, tinkle;

directis contained in words that imitate natural sounds: cuckoo, buzz, tintinabulation, mew.

Indirecta combination of sounds the aim of which is to make the sound of the utterance an echo of its sense: “And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain” (E. Poe)

2) alliteration - is a phonetic SD which aims at imparting a melodic effect to the utterance(initial rhyme): to rob Peter to pay Paul; Deep in the darkness peering, long I stood there wondering, fearing, Doubting, dreaming dreams no mortals ever dared to dream before (E. Poe)

3) rhyme – is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combinations of words. (full, incomplete, compound or broken, eye rhyme, internal rhyme. Also, stanza rhymes: couplets, triple, cross, framing/ring);

The full rhyme presupposes identity of the vowel sound and the following consonant sounds in a stressed syllable, as in might, right; needless, heedless.

Incomplete rhymes: 1) vowel rhymes: flesh-fresh-press 2) and consonant rhymes: worth—forth; tale—tool— Trebletrouble; flung - long.

Compound or broken rhymes: upon her honour—won her; bottom—forgot’em—shot him.

Eye-rhyme: love—prove, flood-brood, have—grave.

Rhymes within the stanza: 1. couplets - when the last words of two successive lines are rhymed. This is commonly marked aa.

2. triple rhymes—aaa

3. cross rhymes—abab-

4. framing or ring rhymes—abba

4) Rhythm: necessarily demands oppositions that alter­nate: long, short; stressed, unstressed; high, low; and other contrasting segments of speech.

Rhythm is to be a stylistic category, one thing is required - the simultaneous perception of two contrasting phenomena, a kind of dichotomy. Rhythm in verse as an SD is defined as a combination of the ideal metrical scheme and the variations of it, variations which are governed by the standard.

2. Lexical expressive means and stylistic devices

The interac­tion of different types of a word’s meanings: dictionary, contextual, derivative, nominal, and emotive.

A. Means based on the interplay of dictionary and contextual meanings: metaphor: Dear Nature is the kindest Mother still. (Byron).

Speed!” he shouted. And pushed it up to one hundred and five miles an hour and tore the breath out of his mouth (R.D. Bradbury).

but hearing only the scream of the car(R.D. Bradbury).

The thunder faded (R.D. Bradbury).

metonymy: The camp, the pulpit and the law For rich man’s sons are free. (Shelly)

irony: It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one’s pocket.

Well, c’est la vie, as Eric so originally says. (V. Nabokov. Pnin).

B. Means based on the interaction of primary and derivative meanings:

polysemy: Massachusetts was hostile to the American flag, and she would not allow it to be hoisted on her State House;

zeugma: May’s mother always stood on her gentility, and Dot’s mother never stood on anything but her active little feet. (Dickens)

“Dora, plunging at once into privileged intimacy and into the middle of the room”. (B. Shaw)

The pun: “Bow to the board,” said Bumble. Oliver brushed away two or three tears that were ling/g/erring (сдерживать, удерживать) in his eyes; and seeing no board but the table, fortunately bowed to that’. (Dickens)

Puns are often used in riddles and jokes, for example, in this riddle: What is the difference between a schoolmaster and an engine-driver? (One trains the mind and the other minds the train.)

C. Means based on the opposition of logical and emotive meanings:

interjections and exclamatory words:

All present life is but an interjection

An ‘Oh’ or ‘Ah’ of joy or misery,

Or a ‘Ha! ha!’ or ‘Bah!’—a yawn or ‘Pooh!’

Of which perhaps the latter is most true.

(Byron)

Epithet (an adjective or descriptive phrase used to chracterise a person or object with the aim to give them subjective evaluation): a well-matched, fairly-balanced give-and-take (взаимные уступки, компромисс, обмен любезностями) couple. (Di­ckens).

as he was helping her into her coat and as usual searching with a frown for the fugitive armhole. (V. Nabokov. Pnin).

two monstrous status on primitive eyes of stone…(V. Nabokov. Pnin).

Oxymoron (a figure of speech in which opposite or contradictory ideas are combined): peopled desert, populous solitude, proud humility. (Byron)

D. Means based on the interaction of logical and nominal meanings:

Antonomasia (the use of a proper name in place of a common one or vice versa to emphasise some feature or quality): Mr. Facing-Both-Ways does not get very far in this world (The Tunes)

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