Kidney diseases

1. What does urinary system consist of?

The urinary system eliminates waste products from the body and maintains fluid/salt balance. The system consists of paired kidneys with ureters, a urinary bladder, and urethra.

2. What are the kidneys? Give the anatomical description of the ksdneys.

Kidney is either of the pair of organs responsible for the excretion of nitrogenous wastes, principally urea, from the blood. The kidneys are situated at the back of the abdomen, below the diaphragm, one on each side of the spine. Each kidney is enclosed in fibrous capsule and is composed of an outer cortex and an inner medulla.

3. What are the principle physiological functions of the human body?

The functions of the human kidneys are: to excrete many waste products and to maintain the correct balance of water and salts.

4. What factors may cause kidney diseases? Name and define the diseases.

The kidney diseases may be caused by injury, infection, cancer or disorders in other parts of the body. Also kidneys may be damaged in a serious accident, by radiotherapy treatment carried out for the cancer, in high blood pressure and stones in kidneys. There are such kidney diseases as urinary tuberculosis, nephritis, acute renal failure, glomerular disease, renal arterial occlusion, pyelonephritis, polycystic kidney and other.

5. What are the symptoms and signs of kidney diseases?

Although many forms of kidney disease do not produce symptoms until late in the course of the disease, there are at least six warning signs that may indicate kidney disease:

1. Burning or difficulty during urination

2. An increase in the frequency of urination

3. Passage of blood in the urine

4. Puffiness around the eyes, swelling of the hands and feet

5. Pain in the small of the back just below the ribs

6. High blood pressure

6. How to investigate kidneys diseases?

Kidney diseases can be investigated by chemical testing of the urine detects the presence of any abnormal substances. Examination of urine through a microscope may detect blood cells resulting from infection. Tests that measure the amount of urea and creatinine in the blood help detect kidney diseases.

7. What may cause urinary obstruction?

One of the most common causes of urinary obstruction is benign prostatic hypertrophy. Other causes urinary obstruction includes:

• infection

• scarring or stricture of urethra from prior infection or surgery

• kidney stones

• cancer of the urinary system

• cancer of the colon, uterus

• any other metastatic cancer

8. What are the clinical manifestations of urinary obstruction?

Urinary obstruction may involve both kidneys or may affect only one kidney or ureter. Symptoms of urinary obstruction include: inability to pass urine, weak stream, and blood in the urine, pain in the side or lover back, distension of the lower abdomen near the pubic.

9. What is acute renal failure?

Acute renal failure (ARF) is the rapid breakdown of renal function that occurs when high levels of uremic toxins (waste products of the body's metabolism) accumulate in the blood. ARF occurs when the kidneys are unable to excrete the daily load of toxins in the urine.

10. What are the symptoms of acute renal failure?

Symptoms of acute renal failure may include:

• Little or no urine when you urinate.

• Swelling, especially in your legs and feet.

• Loss of appetite.

• Nausea and vomiting.

• Feeling confused, anxious and restless, or sleepy.

• Pain in the back, just below the rib cage. This is called flank pain.

Diseases of the respiratory

1.What organs does the respiratory system consist of? What is their anatomy?

The respiratory system consists of all the organs involved in breathing. These include the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi bronchioles, and lungs and also diaphragm and other muscles associated with breathing movements.

Nasal cavity is the space inside the nose, it is divided into two halves by a septum: each half communicated with the outside via the nostrils and with the nasopharynx through the posterior nares.

The pharynx is a body part common to both respiratory and digestive systems. It is located behind the nasal and oral cavities.

Larynx: It is a part of respiratory system that connects trachea with laryngopharynx. The larynx - also known as sound box, is formed of cartilages. Epiglottis, thyroid and cricoids are three important cartilages of the larynx.

The trachea lies to the anterior side of the esophagus. It is a tubular structure with 1 inch diameter and a length of 4.25 inches. The length of trachea spans between 6th cervical and 5th thoracic vertebrae.

Bronchus is any of the air passages beyond the trachea that has cartilage and mucous glands in its wall.

Bronchioles are subdivision of the bronchial tree that does not contain cartilage or mucous glands in its wall.

The lungs are a pair of conical organs present in pleural cavities; both the lungs together form an important part of the human respiratory system. Left lung is divided into 2 lobes (superior and inferior) while the right one in 3 (superior, inferior and middle).

The diaphragm is the primary muscle of inspiration. It is a thin, dome-shaped sheet of muscle that inserts into the lower ribs.