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most intriguing therapeutic techniques is the use of SLN to deliver phytochemicals in the
treatment of NDs.
4.1.5 Dendrimers
Dendrimers are synthetic molecules that are tree shaped and have many branching mono-
mers spreading out from the central core. They are a good candidate for use in the treatment
of NDs because they are nanosized and have a known molecular weight, firmness, low poly-
dispersity, and flexibility of surface modification. Dendrimers are commonly utilized to trans-
port hydrophobic chemicals to specific brain locations. However, there are a number of
drawbacks, including high synthesis costs, batch-to-batch variability, and the difficulty of
obtaining targeted drug delivery. High toxicity is one of the safety concerns with cationic
dendrimers, which can be attributed to the interaction between the positively charged nano-
carrier and the negatively charged cell surface. The formation of nanopores in the cell surface
as a result of this interaction results in the evacuation of cellular content and, as a result, cell
death [178,179].
4.1.6 Nanocrystals
Nanocrystals (NCs) are characterized as pure solid particles with a mean diameter of less
than 1 m, crystalline characteristics, and are mostly made up of 100% pure medicame nt with
stabilizers surrounding the particles. Deposition into NCs can increase the solubility of phar-
maceuticals classified as Class II to IV in the Biopharmaceutics Classification System by
increasing bioavailability and thus therapeutic efficacy. Because of their small size, they
may be able to traverse the BBB and exhibit sustained release qualities, which could open
up new avenues for the development of novel possible therapies for NDs. There are currently
no FDA-approved nanocrystals for NDs, however a few viable candidates have been pro-
duced to tackle AD, PD, and cerebral ischemic injury [180].
4.1.7 Cubosomes
Cubosomes are highly stable nanoparticles made up of lipid cubic phase and a polymer-
based outer corona. A single lipid bilayer creates a continuous periodic membrane lattice
structure with holes generated by two interlaced water channels in lipid cubic phases. Cubo-
some composition can be tweaked to alter pore diameters or add bioactive lipids, and the
polymer outer corona can be employed for targeting. They’re also extremely stable under
physiological settings. Compared to liposomes, the structure provides a substantially larger
membrane surface area for loading membrane proteins and tiny medicinal compounds. They
may now be engineered in vitro in bulk and nanoparticle formats, with applications
including membrane bioreactors, medication delivery, biosensors and artificial cells, accord-
ing to recent advancements [181].
4.2 Inorganic nanocarrier
Gold, silver, platinum, magnetic nanoparticles (iron oxide), chromium, zinc, manganese,
titanium, selenium, palladium, molybdenum, copper, silica, and cerium oxide nanoparticles
have all been employed and modified in order to make them effective diagnostic or therapeu-
tic agents.
17. Impact of phytomedicines and their novel delivery systems418
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4.2.1 Metal nanoparticles
Tuberculosis, rheumatoid arthritis, neoplastic illnesses, and alcoholism have all been
treated using colloidal gold. Scientists are currently interested in metal nanoparticles, particu-
larly gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), due to their oxidation resistance, biocompatibility, and sta-
bility. For siRNA delivery, several forms of AuNPs have been thoroughly explored. AuNPs
functionalized with cationic quaternary ammonium or branching polyethyleneimine, cationic
lipid bilayer coated AuNPS, and oligonucleotide modified AuNPS are among the options.
AuNPs have a number of advantages when it comes to developing drug delivery systems
[182].
In the fields of catalysis (chemistry), electrical, photothermal, and optical properties (phys-
ics), and healthcare (therapeutics, immunoassay, and diagnosis), silver nanoparticles
(AgNPs) play a critical role. AgNPs appear to have antiinflammatory characteristics in addi-
tion to being a good antibacterial agent. Although the intracellular processes involved in the
reduction of proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha,
and interferon gamma by AgNPs are still mainly unknown. Because of their unique interac-
tion with and disruption of the mitochondrial respiratory chain, AgNPs are a preferred choice
in illness management. AgNPs cause DNA damage by decreasing ATP synthesis and
increasing the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) [183].
Platinum nanoparticles have been shown to have activity similar to that of reducing ubi-
quinone (CoQ10) and oxidizing nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) in studies. Plat-
inum nanoparticles also serve as superoxide dismutases mimetics to scavenge ROS such as
hydrogen peroxide (H
2
O
2
), superoxide anion (O
2
-
), and free radicals; and as mitochondrial
complex I to reduce ROS formation. This demonstrates that plati num nanoparticles can simu-
late a portion of complex I’s enzymatic capabilities, implying that they could be used in PD
therapy [184]. Using leaf extract from the neurobeneficial plant Bacopa monnieri, the platinum
nanoparticles were synthesized. The Bacopa monnieri nanoparticles were stabilized before be-
ing coated with the leaf extract’s various phytochemicals [158].
4.2.2 Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs)
MSNs, which are nanosized mesoporous silica particles with exceptional chemical and
thermal durability, are effective theranostic agents in medication delivery systems and bio-
imaging devices for targeted degenerative illnesses. MSNs are better candidates for drug de-
livery systems than porous silica because of their unique characteristics, which include
uniform particle sizes (80e500 nm), planned arrays of 2D hexagonal micro or mesopore struc-
ture, high pore volumes (0.5e2.5 cm
3
/g), flexible pore diameters (1.3e30 nm), large surface
areas (1000 m
2
/g), tunable particle morphology, and both exterior and interior surfaces
that could be autonomously modified with a variety of functional groups [185].
Because of their superior physiochemical properties such as large porosity, high surface
areas, low toxicity, controllable sizes, and wide range of morphologies compared to conven-
tional nanoparticles, MSNs have emerged as favorable tools in biomedical applications as
nanocarriers for encapsulation and delivery of therapeutic medicines. MSNs are still underu-
tilized in clinical practice. This is owing to a number of problems and disadvantages associ-
ated with MSNs, including a scarcity of extensive investigations on the immunogenicity and
4. Nanocarriers-based delivery of phytoconstituents for NDs 419
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toxicity of various MSN forms, their pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetic properties,
and their biodistribution and clearance from the human body [186].
Furthermore, scaling up the manufacture of MSNs on an industrial scale while maintain-
ing rigorous control over their attributes and reproducibility is a difficult task. MSNs may
also interact with the phospholipids in red bloo d cell membranes, producing hemolysis,
depending on their surface features. MSNs have also been linked to a reduction in endoge-
nous ROS, which has been linked to increased malignant melanoma growth. Furthermore,
MSN accumulation in normal body organs, particularly the liver and spleen, is a problem
that must be addressed before MSNs may be used in therapeutic practice [187].
4.2.3 Carbon nanotubes (CNTs)
In many brain-specific therapeutics, CNTs have emerged as a viable nanocarrier system
and therapeutic agent. CNTs’ potential properties are due to their ability to quickly undergo
surface modification with certain chemical molecules. Variations in their biological and phys-
ical features are aided by such surface modifications. Polymer-coated ca rbon nanodots and
chemically functionalized multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), for example, have
been shown to easily traverse the BBB and form an interface with neurons in several
in vitro and in vivo model tests. As a result, CNT absorption at the tumor location is
increased [188]. Toxicity, a lack of control over CNT length and chirality, batch-to-batch vari-
ation, polydispersity in CNT type, and a high cost of manufacture are all problems associated
with CNTs [189]. Berberine, an isoquinoline alkaloid, for use as an anti-Alzheimer agent, was
introduced on the surface of MWCNTs. Further, MWCNTs were also surface modified with
phospholipids and polysorbate to enhance their bioavailability [154].
4.3 Nanomicelles
Micelles have a lower number of studies on NDs treatment than liposomes. Polymeric mi-
celles are a type of nanomat erial formed by the self-assembly of amphiphilic molecules in wa-
ter at a critical micelle concentration. Polymeric micelles commonly have an amphiphilic
block copolymer with a core-shell structure. These nanostructures are adaptable, allowing
for the incorporation of solutes with a variety of structures, including both hydrophilic
and hydrophobic drugs. Nanomicelles have a natural advantage in that their size and
form can be controlled, and they have a high encapsulation efficiency and loading capa city.
Hydrophilic therapies’ inherent toxicity and limited encapsulation efficiency, on the other
hand, limit their applicability. They can increase delivery efficiency and reduce side effects
by targeting delivery. Curcumin was synthesized into curcumin micelles by mixing it with
tween-80 as a model medication for treating AD [190]. Curcumin micelles appeared to be
the most effective formulation for improving curcumin bioavailability in mouse plasma,
with a 45-fold increase in bioavailability compared to curcumin nanoparticles (nine-fold)
and curcumin liposomes (five-fold).
4.4 Hybrid nanocarrier
Hybrid nanovehicles, which combine organic and inorganic molecules in a nanocontainer,
are gaining popularity these days. They have been built to be controlled by external stimuli
17. Impact of phytomedicines and their novel delivery systems420
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[191]. These remotely triggered drug delivery systems have piqued the interest of many re-
searchers because they have the potential to become the perfect drug delivery systems, pref-
erably an active drug carrier that allows for the regulation and control of drug release
behavior. When creating hybrid nanovehicles for remote medication delivery, it’s important
to think about the distinct qualities of the nanocomponents and how to merge them into a
working device by forming functional linkages between them effectively. It is also important
to think about how the medications can be loaded and released properly when exposed to the
right triggers. Hybrid host guest conjugated nanocarriers, hybrid polymeric micelle nanopar-
ticles, hybrid polymeric nanogels, hybrid liposomal nanostructures, hybrid mesoporous core
shell nanostructures based on silica, and others are examples of hybrid nanocarriers [192].
5. Conclusion
NDs like AD and PD are the most com mon illnesses associated with cognitive and motor
abnormalities, and great health problems in aging population. Since the underlying patho-
physiological mechanisms are very complex, the therapeutic potential of currently available
drugs used in NDs is much limited. Therefore, need for better therapeutic strategies, partic-
ularly herbal-based medicines, to fight against NDs seems necessary. Indeed, animal studies
shows therapeutic potential of several herbal extracts and phytoche micals in the management
of NDs. However, poor BBB penetration of phytomedicines is the most challenging issue for
their clinical development. In recent time, enormous, advanced technologies have been devel-
oped to improve pharmacokinetic profile and therapeutic effects of the phytoconstituents.
Several nanocarriers-based delivery systems have been developed to enhance penetration
of phytoconstituents through the BBB in NDs. Nanocarriers-based delivery system of phyto-
medicines significantly improves the biocomp atibility, biodegradability, pharmacokinetic
and therapeutic efficacy, and reduces their peripheral side effects in NDs. Anticipating the
recent progresses, we hope that the interface of phytomedicines and nanotechnology will
lead to highly effective theranostic strategies for the treatment of NDs in the near future.
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