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3.2 Nonvesicular carriers
Nonvesicular carriers include the particulate system and emulsion system. Particulate sys-
tems mainly consist of micro or nanosized range polymeric/lipid matrix systems in which
active molecules are moreover dispersed/entangled or dissolved. Because of the limited
mobility of drug molecules through the solid matrix in these matrix systems, regulated
release occurs in a controlled manner [141]. When two immiscible liquids are mixed with
an emulsifying agent, the resulting dispersion is known as an emulsion. The release rate
from nonvesicular systems could be further modulated by the choice of components. These
systems are found to be stable, possess a better accumulation of drug, targeted, and control
release [145]. Thus, particulate carriers have found their wide applications in incorporating a
wide variety of drugs.
3.2.1 Microspheres
Microspheres are particulate matrix systems with sizes ranging from 1 micron to 1000 mi-
crons in the micron range. It is possible to modify microspheres in a variety of ways to main-
tain and regulate the release profile of a medicine. To modify a particle system, enteric
polymers, mucoadhesive polymers, multilayer coating, and modifying the constituent
floating system may be used in conjunction with other techniques [146,147]. They demon-
strate a reduction in dose frequency while simultaneously improving the therapeutic impact
and patient compliance. Various polymer processing processes have been investigated using
a variety of polymers. Microspheres are often created by the use of solvent evaporation, dual
emulsification, solvent precipitation, and coprecipitation techniques [148]. Various forms of
microspheres aid in enhancing the bioavailability of poorly soluble drugs by providing sta-
bility to the entire system with patient compliance.
Liu et al. reported enhanced efficacy of particulate microspheres of BER composed of thio-
lated chitosan and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose acetate maleate (HPMCAM) for the
duodenal ulcer application having mucoadhesive property [149].
A floating alginate beads formulation containing octadecanol of BER was developed and
tested in rats for various parameters such as diameter, drug content, entrapment, the release
of drugs, floating potential, and gastric retention time. The results obtained for ratio 1:1:2
were found to have 62.1% drug loading, 94% entrapment efficiency, 100% release after
24 h with a floating time of 24 h. Thus alginate beads with octadecanol proof were found
to be an excellent system for H. pylori infection [101,102].
Zhu et al. performed in vivo study of pH-sensitive triple-layered duodenum targeted
microsphere. The results demonstrated an increase in the threefold concentration of AUC
and fivefold Cmax for drug concentration at duodenal when compared with free drug sus-
pension [150].
3.2.2 Nanoparticles
Nanoparticles are nanosized carriers that are made up of lipids, natural and synthetic
polymers, and other components. This mechanism results in the formation of nanospheres
or nanocapsules. Unlike nanospheres, where the drug is disseminated throughout the matrix
(lipid or polymer), nanocapsules have the drug contained inside a single cavity [151]. Solid
lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) are two terms used to
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describe lipid-based formulations. NLCs appear to be more flexible as it combines the prop-
erty of both solid and liquid lipid thus releasing the drug with an initial burst followed by a
control mechanism. SLNs having solid matrix form releases drug by polymer degradation
[125,152e154]. These systems are advantageous in terms of size, modified surface, improved
solubility, and serve a multifunctional purpose. Indeed, the amazing features of nanoparticles
provide the capacity to engage with complicated biological activities in unexpected ways,
which is very promising. It is possible to modify nanoparticles to provide regulated release
of the drug and disease-specific localization by manipulating the polymer properties and sur-
face chemistry of the particles [155e157].
Xue et al. prepared BER solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) to achieve better bioavailability
and prolonged effect. Results reported spherical shapes of 76.8 nm, zeta potential of
7.87 mV, encapsulation efficiency of 58%, and drug loading of 4.2%. In vivo study signifi-
cantly suppressed body weight gain and promoted islets function giving a remarkable anti-
diabetic effect [158].
Khemani et al. demonstrated in vitro release of biodegradable nanoparticles of BER. The
results obtained revealed faster drug release at acidic pH 5.5, mostly 50% of the drug was
released in the first 2 h followed by slow release of drug and later recorded 70% of drug
release in 24 h [159].
3.2.3 Solid solution
The approach entails creating a solid solution of the medicine, in which the solid solute is
molecularly distributed in a solid solvent, or using eutectic mixes, which requi re the physical
mixing of two crystalline components. Third, as explained below, it entails the developme nt
of solid dispersion and inclusion complexes to solve solubility difficulties in pharmaceutical
formulations [160,161].
3.2.4 Solid dispersion
Solid dispersion is one of the most efficient techniques to enhance the solubility of poorly
soluble drugs [162]. These are prepared by coprecipitation and coevaporation methods. In
this method, the drug precipitates out in the crystalline form. This process is advantageous
for thermolabile drugs. The only disadvantage associated with this method is that it requires
a large amount of solvent [162,163]. Later surfactant came into action which is a substitute to
solvent thus enhancing solubility of the poorly soluble drug and enhancing its bioavailability.
Zhang et al. performed in vitro and in vivo experiments of BERephospholipid complex
(BPC). The solid dispersion system was prepared to enhance the lipid solubility of BER by
adding TPGS 1000 also inhibiting the efflux of BER. The results obtained revealed enhanced
solubility, absorption, and bioavailability on an increasing ratio of TPGS 1000 [100].
3.2.5 Inclusion complex
Molecular inclusion complexes involve the formation of a host-guest complex intending to
enhance the solubility and dissolution rate of poorly soluble drugs. The b and g cyclodextrins
serve as best hosts because these molecules possess a hyd rophobic central cavity and outer
hydrophilic surface within which lipophilic molecules could easily house themselves [164].
The preparation of the inclusion complex involves a very simple method as by homogenous
mixing, grinding, and coevaporation [165]. These molecular complexes proved to be highly
3. Delivery approaches 389
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advantageous for the poorly soluble sensitive drug having a bitter taste. Li et al. formulated
the Berb-b-Cyclodextrin complex by various methods and analyzed its characteristics by ther-
mogravimetric and infrared spectroscopy. The result obtained revealed the fact that the
grinding method gave higher inclusion efficiency compared with the coevaporation and ho-
mogenization method. The studies are evidence that this method could be opted to formulate
inclusion complex of BER and plantlike actives [166].
3.2.6 Self-assembled polymer system
Self-assembled polymeric systems are made up of a variety of polymers that may arrange
themselves into a certain shape, form, or swell in the presence of a polarized aqueous or sol-
vent fluid [167,168]. These systems are widely utilized to treat ulcers, intestinal illnesses, can-
cer, fungal infections, wound healing, and other topical therapies [168,169].
3.2.7 Hydrogel
Hydrogels appear as a mesh of polymers consisting of a cross-linked network of hydro-
phobic polymers linked with each other by physical or chemical means [170]. Efficacy of
hydrogel is increased by applying it to the mucosal area thus providing an effective environ-
ment for the system to swell by absorbing a large quantity of water and release of drug
modulated by diffusion after swelling/degradation of polymers [171]. On the basis of pore
size, the hydrogel can be classified into macroporous, microporous, and nonporous [172].
Macroporous hydrogels have pore dimensions of 0.1e1 mm, microporous hydrogels have a
small pore size of 100e1000 Å, and nonporous hydrogels are in the range of 10e100 Å.
The release of drugs from hydrogel is generally controlled by its mesh size, incorporated
drug, and complex architect formed by the entanglement of polymers [173].
Jung et al. formulated chitosan hydrogels of BER for transdermal application to treat leish-
maniasis found that permeation through skin increases on reducing viscosity and by adding
absorption enhancer to the formulation. Thus formulation could be modified and release rate
could be altered according to need [174].
3.2.8 Polymeric micelle
Polymeric micelles are colloidal-shaped particles that self-assemble and have a hydropho-
bic core with a hydrophilic coating [175e177]. The outer layer regulates the pharmacokinetic
parameters, whereas the inner core is accountable for the drug loading capacity, stability, and
release characteristics. To produce drug-loaded micelles, the micelles are typically formed by
evaporation of an organic solution of the combination and hydration of the dry solid with an
aqueous solution/buffer by vigorous shaking [175,177]. Additional micelle-forming materials
such as egg phosphatidylcholine are introduced to micelles in order to increase drug solubi-
lization. The structures of micelle allow efficient drug loading by covalent linking or physical
entrapment, increased bioavailability, minimum drug degradation, and toxic effects. These
systems have gained applications in drug delivery for various ill effects as in anticancer,
neurodegenerative diseases, ocular drug delivery, dermal delivery, gene delivery, and
inflammatory disorders [178].
Wang et al. designed anhydrous reverse micelle of BER to treat diabetes through rehydra-
tion of lyophilized water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions by incorporating soy phosphatidylcholine
as emulsifiers. The comparative study of BER incorporated micelle with plain active
16. Novel drug delivery approaches for improving therapeutic applications of berberine and berberine-rich herbal preparations390
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demonstrated to have enhanced concentration of BER in the blood thus proved to have
improved bioavailability and antidiabetic efficacy [179].
3.2.9 Emulsions
It is a unique fusion of multiple differing liquids that results in an emulsion. It is likely to
make emulsions by dispersing two or more immiscible liquids together, stabilizing them us-
ing a surfactant or emulsifier, and achieving homogeneous dispersion of two liquids [180].
Surfactants and stabilizers help to prevent collisions between droplets and to lower the inter-
facial tension between the droplets. This might be done by changing the size range of the
droplets, which could be in the micro- and nanorange [181].
3.2.10 Microemulsions
Microemulsions are transparent emulsions with micron-size droplets also known as ther-
modynamically stable isotropic dispersions; the types include oil-in-water (o/w) or water-in-
oil (w/o) [182]. Its preparation requires the construction of a ternary phase diagram between
two immiscible liquids and surfactants to be added. Microemulsions could be given topically,
orally, and in the form of injectables. They have been reported remarkably to improve the
bioavailability of poorly soluble drugs [183]. The pattern of drug release from a microemul-
sion might be controlled by modulating the interactions between the drug and the surfactant,
as well as the partitioning of the drug between the oil and water phases. These metho ds have
been utilized in the treatment of a variety of diseases [184].
Guiet al. formulated an or al microemulsion of BER by utilizing oleic acid, Tween 80, and
PEG400 to improve the bioavailability of herbal active. The results indicated that the micro-
emulsion had a size range of 24.0 nm or smaller. When administered orally, BER-loaded
microemulsion was shown to have a bioavailability of 6.47 orders of magnitude greater
than that of BER tablets or suspensions, according to the findings of in vivo research. As a
result, microemulsion has proven to be a viable oral drug delivery strategy for BER in animal
studies [185].
3.2.11 Cellular derivatives
Cellular systems like various derivatives of bacterial cells could be explored to give tar-
geted and controlled release of active constituents. These systems provide stability and
biocompatibility and can be even used to entrap nanosystem within it. These systems are
effectively used to load both synthetic and herbal drugs for antiinflammatory, anticancer,
antifungal effects, gastrointestinal diseases, and to load hepatoprotective drugs [186].
3.2.12 Bacterial cell
Bacterial cells and their derivatives could be altered and engineered to modify it as a tar-
geted delivery system. Since the bacterial cell is associated with many advantages such as
their cellulosic membrane, polysaccharides capsule, flagella making them vulnerable target
medium [187]. These drug-loaded cells could be tailored accordingly for encapsulation into
nanocapsules for a controlled delivery rate. Researchers Huang et al. modified the cellulose
membranes of bacterial cells and employed them as carriers for the drug BER hydrochloride,
demonstrating that it can release the drug in a controlled manner. The findings revealed that
the release curves closely followed the RitgerePeppas model with free diffusion mechanism
3. Delivery approaches 391
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and that the cellulosic membrane had a significant impact on the solubility of the drug, result-
ing in the prolonged release of the medication [188].
3.2.13 Ceramic carriers
A ceramic system has been constructed by modifying inorganic materials into a structured
form in order to accept different types of molecules in varied configurations [189,190]. Inor-
ganic materials were used as the major component and were transformed into a structured
manner. Some of the many different types of ceramic carriers that are available are ceramic
nanoparticles, ceramic nanoclays, and nanoscaffolds [189,190].
3.2.14 Nanoscaffolds
Nanoscaffolds are porous in nature having a matrixlike appearance, mainly composed of
inorganic materials and polymers which are highly biocompatible [191]. The structural
arrangement of scaffolds provides a large surface area for the incorporation of bioactives
and bases to form interconnectivity between bones and cells [191,192]. Thus scaffolds are
nowadays highly utilized for tissue regeneration, bone remodeling. The flexibility and release
of bioactives from scaffolds could be controlled by coating the system with suitable polymers
[193].
An antibacterial compound called chitosan (CS) was utilized by Huang et al. and this com-
pound was then coated over a nano-hydroxyapatite/polyamide66 (n-HA/PA66) scaffold to
promote bone regeneration while also possessing antimicrobial capabilities. It was proven by
a bactericidal test that the delivery method had a significant antibiotic impact. An in vitro
investigation showed that the coatings of scaffolds boost MG63 adherence, growth, and pro-
liferation while having no cytotoxic effect on the cells [80].
4. Conclusion
Modern drug and pharmaceutical research is intrigued by the vast spectrum of pharmaco-
logical activity and therapeutic potential of BER. BER is a key component in Indian and Chi-
nese herbal remedies and nutritional supplements. However, inadequate bioavailability,
solubility, and membrane permeability have limited their clinical development efficacy.
Many efforts have been made to increase its solubility and permeability, together with
new pharmacological approaches including NDDS. There are a number of NDDS including
liposomes, nanoparticles, microspheres, and emulsions that have been developed to increase
the bioavailability of BER for various therapeutic purposes such as cancer, diabetes, and in-
fectious disease therapy. Less toxicity, less safety, and more focused administration have all
been improved by the new drug delivery systems. All of these issues have driven the devel-
opment of novel polymer or lipid delivery strategies to improve efficacy and patient compli-
ance. The NDDS systems suggest a potential BER product for clinical trials and medicines.
Acknowledgment
The authors are thankful to University Grants Commission for Raman fellowship to one of the authors DS.
16. Novel drug delivery approaches for improving therapeutic applications of berberine and berberine-rich herbal preparations392
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