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Impact of phytomedicines and their

novel delivery systems as an

alternative for the treatment of

neurodegenerative disorders

Kartik Nakhate

, Shubhada Mangrulkar

, Hemant Badwaik

Rajesh Choudhary

, Madhuri Baghel

, Sameer Goyal

and

Ajazuddin

Shri Vile Parle Kelavani Mandal’s Institute of Pharmacy, Dhule, Maharashtra, India;

Smt.

Kishoritai Bhoyar College of Pharmacy, New Kamptee, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India;

Shri

Shankaracharya Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, Bhilai, Chhattisgarh, India;

Shri Shankaracharya College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Bhilai, Chhattisgarh, India;

Rungta

College of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, Bhilai, Chhattisgarh, India

1. Introduction

Neurodegenerative disorders (NDs), including Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s dis-

ease (PD), Huntington’s disease (HD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), spinal muscular

atrophy (SMA), and spinocerebellar ataxia (SCA) are characterized by progressive loss of

neurons in the speciﬁc brain regions. Neurodegeneration can arise due to several factors,

such as injury to the nervous system, ischemia, oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum stress,

neuroinﬂammation, abnormal protein deposition in neural tissue, autoimmune-mediated

neuronal loss, viral or prion infections and family history [1,2]. Generally, the neurodegener-

ative changes begin in the subcortical areas, and as the disease progresses, it spreads to the

cortical areas. In each ND, the brain region varies such as hippocampal and cor tical areas in

AD, striatal areas in PD, striatal and cortical areas in HD, and spinal motor neurons and

cortical areas in ALS [1]. Beside regional speciﬁcity, neuronal selectivity has been observed

CHAPTER

403

Phytopharmaceuticals and Herbal Drugs

https://t.me/med1917

in NDs; for example, in AD, the degeneration of cholinergic neurons occurs due to accumu-

lation of amyloid-beta plaques, while PD is associated with destruction of dopaminergic neu-

rons triggered by accumulation of Lewy bodies [3].

Millions of people suffer with NDs worldwide, and the global incidences of the most com-

mon NDs such as AD and PD are predicted to rise signiﬁcantly with growing population.

NDs pose a serious health chal lenge as the neurodegeneration can only be slowed down

by the currently available therapeutic agents, but cannot be halted completely [3,4]. There-

fore, the treatment of NDs has become one of the most challenging issues for the clinicians,

and the need for better therapeutic strategies, particularly herbal-based medicines, to ﬁght

with NDs seems necessary. Over the past few decades, enormous, advanced technologies

have been developed with the purpose of carrying different phytoconstituents to their tar-

gets. These technologies in turn have put a step forward in terms of improvement of pharma-

cokinetic proﬁle, intracellular penetration, and distribution at the target site, to ultimately

enhance the pharmacological effects [5].

The effectiveness of herbal agents has been suggested for the prevention and treatment of

various diseases [6e11]. Multiple scientiﬁc studies support the efﬁciency of herbal medicines

in the treatment of NDs. Majority of the medicinal plant compounds including polyphenols,

ﬂavonoids, alkaloids and terpenes possess therapeutic properties, and can be an alternative

for the treatment of NDs [12,13]. The major limitation hindering the use of phytoconstituents

in NDs is their lower bioavailability [14]. The factors like poor solubility, poor stability in

gastric and colonic acidity, m etabolism by gut microﬂora, poor absorption across the intesti-

nal wall, active efﬂux in intestine and extensive ﬁrst-pass metabolism result in the failure of

phytochemicals in clinical trials [15]. Similarly, the main challenge for the delivery of drugs

into the central nervous system (CN S) is to overcome their poor bloodebrain barrier (BBB)

penetration ability and possible side effects when reaching at nontarget peripheral tissues

[16e18].

A great development has been done in the ﬁeld of the drug delivery systems, particularly

in nano-sized materials (1e100 nm). The nano-formulations have the ability to cross several

biological barriers to protect the drugs from premature deactivation, thereby improving their

pharmacokinetic proﬁle, and to increase the internalization and distribution of the drugs at

the target site. Studies suggested the effectiveness of nanodrug delivery systems for the treat-

ment of NDs to boost up the passage of drugs through the BBB with additional advantage of

reduced biodegradability and toxicity to the peripheral organs [19e21]. Similarly, to increase

the stability, bioavailability and effectiveness of phytoconstitue nts, the better-quality formu-

lations are essential. In fact, research advances employing biocompatible constituents in

nanoformulations to enhance the therapeutic performance of phytochemicals. Nanoformula-

tion of phytoconstituents using polymers, liposomes, micelles, dendri mers, and microemul-

sions has been demonstrated to imp rove the efﬁcacy [22e26]. The exciting interface

existing between phytoconstituents and nanotechnology is an emerging marvel in the med-

icine, which can del iver the promising resu lts in the treatment of NDs.

In order to assess the potential applications of medicinal plants, their derived components,

and various nanomedicinal approaches, a detailed review of literature is essential. In the pre-

sent chapter, numerous ﬁndings on the delivery system for phytoconstituents-based nanome-

dicines for the treatment of NDs have been discussed. Furthermore, recent trends in

17. Impact of phytomedicines and their novel delivery systems404

https://t.me/med1917

nanotechnology such as nanocarriers-based delivery of phytoconstituents with reference to

the treatment of NDs have been elaborated.

2. Phytomedicines for neurodegenerative disorders (NDs): A

neuropharmacological perspective

A variety of drugs are available for symptomatic management of NDs, including correc-

tion of dopaminergic and cholinergic pathways for PD and movement disorders, and anti-

cholinesterase for AD and cognitive disorders. However, still, there are many problems to

administer the progressive and serious symptoms of these diseases [27]. In the current sce-

nario, several natural and phytomedicines have been proposed to the management of

NDs. The evidence suggests that NDs have common pathophysiological mechanisms such

as abnormal protein accumulation, cellular transport defects, mitochondrial deﬁcits, oxida-

tive stress, inﬂammation, and excitotoxicity. Thus, correction of these common pathways is

considered as the main neuroprotective targets for the management of NDs [28,29]. A

plethora of research has demonstrated that phytochemicals interfere with the above-

mentioned mechanisms and reduce the progression of NDs [12,30e32,]. In this section, we

highlighted some phytomedicines and their role in NDs.

2.1 Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and other dementias

AD is the most common form of dementia, manifested as an impairment of cognitive func-

tions, and behavioral and motor abnormalities [33]. Other than family history, people with

type 2 diabetes and hypertension are at the higher risk of AD in the later age [34,35]. It is

the most common ND, and several animal models have been developed to evaluate the efﬁ-

cacy of various agents in AD [36e39]. The pathophysiology of AD is very complex, which

involves a variety of mechanisms like amyloid-beta deposition (senile plaques), tau protein

hyperphosphorylation and aggregation (neuroﬁbrillary tangles), cholinergic neuronal loss,

neuronal oxidative stress, neuroinﬂammation, and apoptosis [40]. Currently, the United

States Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved AD medications are the acetylch olin-

esterase inhibitors like donepezil, rivastigmine, galantamine, and the NMDA receptor antag-

onist memantine [41].

A variety of phytoconstituents have the ability to act on multiple targets against AD. Phy-

tomedicines mitigate the generation or aggregation of amyloid-beta, oxidative stress, cholin-

esterase and/or butyrylcholinesterase activity, and inﬂammation [13,42e44,]. In Ayurveda, a

variety of plants herbs used to treat the AD-related abnormalities including Guduchi (Tino-

spora cordifolia), Yashtimadhu (Glycyrrhiza glabra), Padma (Nelumbo nucifera), Vacha (Acorus

calamus), Shankhpushpi (Convolvulus pluricaulis), Amalaki (Phyllanthus emblica), Arjun (Termi-

nalia Arjuna), and Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera )[45]. Additionally, investigations also

suggested that several medicinal plants are utilized in AD treatment, which include Acorus

calamus L. (Araceae), Angelica archangelica L. (Umbelliferae), Bacopa monniera Wettst. (Scro-

phulariaceae), Biota orientalis L. (Coniferae) Cupressaceae, Celastrus paniculatus Willd. (Celas-

traceae), Centella asiatica L. (Umbelliferae), Clitoria ternatea L. (Leguminosae), Codonopsis

pilosula Franch (Campanulaceae), Convolvulus pluricaulis Chois. (Convolvulaceae), Coptis

2. Phytomedicines for neurodegenerative disorders (NDs): A neuropharmacological perspective 405

https://t.me/med1917

chinensis Franch. (Ranunculaceae), Crocus sativus L. (Iridaceae), Curcuma longa L. (Zingibera-

ceae), Evodia rutaecarpa (Juss.) Benth. (Rutaceae), Ginkgo biloba L. (Ginkgoaceae), Hypericum

perforatum L. (Clusiaceae) (Hypericaceae) Magnolia ofﬁcinalis Rehd. and Wils. (Magnoliaceae),

Melissa ofﬁcinalis L. (Lamiaceae), Piper methysticum Frost. (Piperaceae), Polygala tenuifolia Wild.

(Polygalaceae), Rheum spp . L. (Polygonaceae), Salvia lavandulaefolia Vahl. (Lamiaceae), Salvia

miltiorrhiza Bung. (Lamiaceae), Salvia ofﬁcinalis L. (Lamiaceae), Terminalia chebula L. (Combre-

taceae), Withania somnifera L. (Solanaceae) [13,42 ,45,46]. Some important phytomedicines and

their pharmacological roles with respect to AD are discussed in Table 17.1.

TABLE 17.1 Medicinal plants with a potential to treat Alzheimer’s disease (AD).

SN Biological name Family Pharmacological action References

1 Iris Florentina Iridaceae Cholinesterase inhibition and antioxidant Ullah et al. [47]

2 Piper betle Piperaceae Cholinesterase inhibition Valentão et al. [48]

3. Zingiber ofﬁcinale Zingiberaceae Cholinesterase inhibition,

antiamyloidogenic and antioxidant

Han et al. [49], Mathew and

Subramanian [50], Oboh et al.

[51]

4 Allium sativum Amaryllidaceae Cholinesterase inhibition, antioxidant,

antiinﬂammatory, and antiamyloidogenic

Bozin et al. [52], Chauhan [53],

Hodge et al. [54], Kumar [55]

5 Ginkgo biloba Ginkgoaceae Cholinesterase inhibition, antioxidant, and

neuroprotective

Singhal et al. [45]

6 Bacopa monnieri

(Brahmi)

Scrophulariaceae Nootropic action: Enhances learning and

memory, and inhibits cholinergic

degeneration

Shinomol et al. [56], Singh and

Dhawan [57], Uabundit et al.

[58]

7 Glycyrrhiza glabra Fabaceae Alleviates the dementia and enhances

memory

Ambawade et al. [59], Dhingra

et al. [60]

8 Magnolia ofﬁcinalis Magnoliaceae Cholinesterase inhibition, antioxidant and

antiinﬂammatory

Lee et al. [61], Liou et al. [62]

9 Convolvulus

pluricaulis

(Shankhpushpi)

Convolvulaceae Enhances learning and memory, and

neuroprotection

Bihaqi et al. [63]

10 Curcuma longa Zingiberaceae Antiinﬂammatory and antiamyloidogenic Aggarwal and Harikumar [64

Mishra and Palanivelu [65]

11 Centella asiatica Apiaceae Antiinﬂammatory and antiamyloidogenic Cervenka and Jahodár [66]

12 Tinospora cordifolia Menispermaceae Enhances cognitive function and

acetylcholine synthesis

Roy [46]

13 Panax Ginseng Araliaceae Enhances cognitive function and improves

cholinergic function

Singhal et al. [45]

17. Impact of phytomedicines and their novel delivery systems406

https://t.me/med1917

2.2 Parkinson’s disease (PD) and related disorders

PD is the second most common ND after AD, which mainly affects the motor performance.

The movement abnormalities like trem ors, rigidity, bradykinesia, and postural instability are

characteristic features of PD [67]. This disease is mainly associated with the loss of dopami-

nergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta region and the striatum. Moreover,

a-synuclein aggregation (Lewy bodies), neuroinﬂammation, mitochondrial dysfunction,

and oxidative stress are other prime pathophysiological pathways for exacerbation of PD

[68,69]. Presently, improvement of dopaminergic activity by drug like levodopa, and inhibi-

tion of cholinergic activity by anticholinergic drugs are the main targets for PD to offer symp-

tomatic relief [70]. Beside the synthetic drugs, phytomedicines and natural products are the

emerging source of neuroprotection for PD (Fig. 17.1).

Several research conﬁrmed that phytomedicines have the ability to treat PD, and some of

them proved to be effective and more reliable than the current synthetic drugs. These herbs

and nutraceuticals include Erythrina velutin (Fabaceae), Pegan um harmal (Nitrariaceae), Cur-

cuma longa (Zingiberaceae), Carthamus tinctoriu s L. (Asteraceae), Pueraria lobate (Fabaceae),

Juglandis semen (Juglandaceae), Lycium barbarum L fruit (Solanaceae), Mucuna pruriens (Faba-

ceae), Bacopa monnieri (Schrophulariaceae), Camellia sinensis ( Theaceae), Coffea a rabica (Rubia-

ceae), Gingko b iloba (Ginkgoaceae), Fructus alpinia oxyphylla (Zingiberaceae), Delphinium

denudatum (Ranunculaceae), Panax ginseng (Araliaceae), Chunghyuldan, Paeoniae Alba Ra-

dix, Tianma Gouteng Yin, Baicalei, and resveratrol [30,71]. Some important plants and their

roles in PD are summarized in Table 17.2.

FIGURE 17.1 The pathophysiological targets for phytomedicines in Parkinson’s disease (PD).

2. Phytomedicines for neurodegenerative disorders (NDs): A neuropharmacological perspective 407

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