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17
Medicinal Properties of the Plant Under
Adverse Environmental Conditions
2
Abhijeet Mahana
Abstract
Medicinal plants are used globally as a valuable source of medicine for various
diseases. They have become an essential asset for life’s existence on earth since
ancient times and play a crucial role to prepare medicines in the pharmaceutical
industry of the modern era. However, poor environmental conditions have a
negative impact on the growth, development, total yield, and production of
bioactive compounds in medicinal plants. Therefore, the influence of various
adverse environmental conditions on the medicinal properties of medicinal plants
has been discu ssed in this chapter.
Keywords
Medicinal plants · Temperature · Drought · Salinity · Light
2.1 Introduction
A medicinal plant is a type of plant in which one or more organs contain substances
that can be used for therapeutic purposes or as precursors for the synthesis of
valuable drugs. They exist in the environment as an ancient form of healing and
act as a storekeeper for various bioactive compounds like vitamins, aldehydes,
anthocyanins, flavonoids, tannins, terpenoids, alkaloids, and phenols (Ivanišová
et al. 2021; Singh et al. 2022). These compounds increase therapeutic properties
like antiviral, anticancer, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, and so forth
A. Mahana (✉)
French Associates Institutes for Agriculture and Biotechnology of Drylands, Jacob Blaustein
Institute for Desert Research (BIDR), Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Sede Boqer Campus,
Israel
#
The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte
Ltd. 2023
D. Singh et al. (eds.), Stress-responsive Factors and Molecular Farming
in Medicinal Plants,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-4480-4_2
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(El-Shahir et al. 2022; Loi et al. 2020; Rahman et al. 2022;Tranetal. 2020). A study
by Lee and Goto (2022) suggested that exposure to ozone (200 ppb) up to 48 h,
increased the concentration of total phenolics (2.1-fold), antioxidant capacity (1.07-
fold), flavonoids (1.83-fold), and anthocyanins (5.23-fold) in Lactuca sativa L., but
after 72 h, it slightly decreased. Another study by Brima (
2017) suggested that
environmental pollution causes increased high levels of elements like Na, Mg, Cu,
Zn, Fe, Pb, and Mn in various medicinal plant species. As a result, these medicinal
plants can be considered another source to treat diabetes (Ngugi et al.
2015).
However, in another side, the two major envir onmental pollutants like textile dyes
and antibiotics negatively influence plant growth and development and affect the
level of secondary metabolites (Copaciu et al.
2016). Copaciu et al. (2016) reported
in their study that exposure to high concentrations of textile dyes (1.5 mg L
-1
) for
1-week results in a reduction in flavonoid content in Triticum aestivum L. Therefore,
it can be concluded that the long-term exposure of plants in adverse condition
decreases the presence of bioactive compounds, as a result, medicinal properties
also affected.
18 A. Mahana
The
applic
ation
o
f
medicinal plants has increased day by day due to their various
medicinal properties, easy availability, affordability, accessibility, low cost, and
adverse effect of standard synthetic drug agents. In the global scenario, about 80%
of the world’s population totally depends upon traditional or herbal medicine for the
treatment of diseases (WHO
n.d.). Currently, medicinal plants are used to treat
diabetes, hepatitis, ulcers, antipyretics, infertility, antioxidants, analgesics, inflam-
mation, swelling, emetic, piles, smallpox, COVID-19, dermatological, tonic, anti-
burn, laxative, cancer, and earthworm diseases (Li et al.
2022; Abubakar et al. 2022;
Bouyahya et al. 2021; Tonisi et al. 2020). Table 2.1 represents a list of some
common medicinal plants and their therapeutic uses to cure various diseases.
It is a widespread belief that medicines prepared from plants are natural and are
therefore intrinsically harmless. However, among various herbal medicines extracted
from medicinal plants, some are toxic to both humans and animals with potential
damage to certain organs in the body whereas others are non-toxic in nature. Based
on the toxic nature, the mode of uptake of plants as a medicine depends. The toxic
effects of herbal medicine have been attributed to several factors, including the
presence of toxic herbal ingredients, drug-h erb interactions, or the contamination of
herbal preparations by heavy metals, microorganisms, mycotoxins, and pesticide
residues (Bateman et al. 1998).
Basically, it can be said that adverse environmental conditions play a major role
in the reduction of medicinal properties of plants that needs to be considered.
Increasing the temperature of the earth from 2 to 4.9 °C by year 2100 leads to create
abiotic stress (drought, salt stress, and extreme temperature) that causes a reduction
in plant fitness and their overall productivity (Aref et al.
2016; Raftery et al. 2017). In
association with abiotic stress, the change in weather, climate, and production risk
causes physical damage to crop plants, and trees in the direct or indirect pathways
(Das et al. 2003). Thus, understanding the adverse environmental condition of
medicinal plants lays the foundation for the understanding of plant resilience. To
mediate adverse environmental conditions, medicinal plants have also evolved
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(continued)
2 Medicinal Properties of the Plant Under Adverse Environmental Conditions 19
Table 2.1 List of some common medicinal plants and their therapeutic uses to cure various
diseases
S. No. Scientific name Family Therapeutic use Reference
1 Abrus precatorius
L.
Fabaceae Painful bleeding Balamurugan
et al. (
) 2018
2 Acanthus
pubescens
(Oliv.) Engl.
Acanthaceae Chickenpox Gumisiriza
et al. (
2021)
3 Achyranthes
aspera L.
Amaranthaceae Toothache, kidney stone Lal et al.
(
2023)
4 Acmella paniculata
(Wall. ex DC.)
R. K. Jansen
Asteraceae Toothache Lal et al.
(
2023)
5 Acorus calamus L. Acoraceae Headache and insomnia Lal et al.
(
2023)
6 Andrographis
lineata Wall. ex
Nees
Acanthaceae Diabetics Kadhirvel
et al. (
2010)
7 Andrographis
paniculata
(Burm. f.) Nees
Acanthaceae Malaria, chronic fever,
leprosy, gonorrhea,
scabies, boils, skin
eruptions
Lal et al.
(
2023)
8 Azadirachta indica
A. Juss.
Meliaceae Vermifuge, antiseptic,
anti-diabetics,
astringent, antiperiodic
Kadhirvel
et al. (
2010)
9 Bambusa vulgaris
Schrad.
Poaceae Malaria Kumar et al.
(
2021)
10 Barleria cristata L. Acanthaceae Cuts and wounds Singh et al.
(
2017)
11 Betula utilis
D. Don
Betulaceae Cut and wounds Singh et al.
(
2017)
12 Bryophyllum
pinnatum (Lam.)
Oken
Crassulaceae Kidney stones Lal et al.
(
2023)
13 Calotropis
gigantea (L.)
Dryand
Apocynaceae
Antiseptic, skin diseases Lal et al.
(2023)
14 Cannabis sativa L. Cannabaceae Body pain, cuts, burn,
diabetes and dysentery
Kumar et al.
(2021)
15 Capsicum
frutescens L.
Solanaceae Wounds healing, blood
coagulant
Tangjang et al.
(2011)
16 Carissa spinarum
L.
Apocynaceae Fever, diarrhea and
toothache
Kumar et al.
(2021)
17 Cassia alata L. Fabaceae Ringworm Tangjang et al.
(2011)
18 Cassine glauca
(Rottb.)
Kuntze
Celastraceae Snake and dog bite Lal et al.
(2023)
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(continued)
20 A. Mahana
Table 2.1 (continued)
S. No. Scientific name Family Therapeutic use Reference
19 Centella asiatica
(L.) Urb.
Apiaceae Memory enhancer Kumar et al.
(
2021)
20 Centella asiatica
(L.) Urb.
Apiaceae Diarrhea and dysentery Lal et al.
(
2023)
21 Citrus limon
(Linn.) Burm. f.
Rutaceae Nail infection, body
fitness
Kadhirvel
et al. (
2010)
22 Clitoria ternatea L. Fabaceae Stomachache or related
complications
Bojjangada
and Devi
Prasad (
2021)
23 Coccinia indica
W. and A.
Cucurbitaceae Diabetics Kadhirvel
et al. (
2010)
24 Coccinia indica. L. Cucurbitaceae Urinary obstruction Balamurugan
et al. (
2018)
25 Colebrookea
oppositifolia
(Smith.)
Lamiaceae cough, wounds and eye
infection
Kumar et al.
(
2021)
26 Cordia macleodii
Hook. f. and
Thomson.
Boraginaceae Wound healing,
cardiovascular disorders
and high blood pressure
Lal et al.
(
2023)
27 Drymaria cordata
(L.) Willd. ex
Schult.
Caryophyllaceae Herpes, fever and
headache
Singh et al.
(
2017)
28 Dysphania
ambrosioides (L.)
Mosyakin and
Clemants
Amaranthaceae Vomiting Gumisiriza
et al. (
2021)
29 Emblica officinalis
Gaertn.
Euphorbiaceae Stomachache Tangjang et al.
(
2011)
30 Hibiscus
rosasinensisa L.
Malvaceae Boils Tangjang et al.
(
2011)
31 Justicia
wynaadensis
B.
Hyene
Acanthaceae Ulcers Gumisiriza
et al. (2021)
32 Kalanchoe
prolifera (Bowie
ex Hook.) Raym.-
Hamet
Crassulaceae Cough, malaria Rakotoarivelo
et al. (2015)
33 Litchi
chinensis Sonn.
Sapindaceae Diarrhea, dysentery,
stomachache
Rakotoarivelo
et al. (2015)
34 Madhuca latifolia
(Roxb.) J. F.
Macbr.
Sapotaceae Itching, cysts, diabetes
and ulcers
Srivastava
et al. (2023)
35 Megacarpaea
polyandra Benth.
ex Madden
Brassicaceae Fever, abdominal
problems, snake bite and
scorpion sting
Singh et al.
(2017)
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secondary metabolites as a defense to protect them from stress conditions (Berini
et al. 2018; Isah 2019; Zaynab et al. 2018). Therefore, in this chapter, we are going to
highlight the toxic effect of adverse environmental conditions on medicinal plants.
2 Medicinal Properties of the Plant Under Adverse Environmental Conditions 21
Table 2.1 (continued)
S. No. Scientific name Family Therapeutic use Reference
36 Mollugo nudicaulis
Lam.
Molluginaceae Malaria, stomachache Rakotoarivelo
et al. (
2015)
37 Moringa oleifera
Lam.
Moringaceae Asthma, night blindness Srivastava
et al. (
2023)
38 Musa paradisiaca
L.
Musaceae Gallbladder stone Bojjangada
and Devi
Prasad (
2021)
39 Nyctanthes arbor-
tristis L.
Oleaceae Arthritis, rheumatism,
dyspepsia, flatulence
Srivastava
et al. (
2023)
40 Ocimum sanctum
L.
Lamiaceae Stomachache, loose
motion
Tangjang et al.
(
2011)
41 Petchia
erythrocarpa
(Vatke) Leeuwenb.
Apocynaceae Malaria Rakotoarivelo
et al. (
2015)
42 Phyllanthus
amarus Schumach.
and Th onn.
Phyllanthaceae Jaundice Bojjangada
and Devi
Prasad (
2021)
43 Polyalthia
longifolia (Sonn.)
Thwaites
Annonaceae Pyorrhoea, Hypotension,
ulcers, diabetes
Srivastava
et al. (
2023)
44 Psidium guajava L. Myrtaceae Diarrhea, dysentery Rakotoarivelo
et al. (
2015)
45 Saraca asoca
(Roxb.) Willd
Fabaceae Menstrual disorders,
Diabetes, haemorrhoids
and fever
Srivastava
et al. (
2023)
46 Schefflera vinosa
(Chan. and
Schltdl.) Frodin
and Fiaschi
Araliaceae Malaria Lal et al.
(
2023)
47 Smithia
sensitive
Aiton
Fabaceae Stomach ailments Bojjangada
and Devi
Prasad (
2021)
48 Terminalia
bellirica
(Gaertn.) Roxb.
Combretaceae Cough and respiratory
diseases
Singh et al.
(2017)
49 Terminalia
chebula Retz.
Combretaceae Cough, skin diseases Singh et al.
(2017)
50 Thottea siliquosa
(Lam.) Ding Hou
Aristolochiaceae Vomiting and diarrhea Bojjangada
and
Devi
Prasad (
2021)
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22 A. Mahana
2.2 Current Status and Trends of Medicinal Plants
In the global scenario, it is seen that more than 5000 research articles are published
every year that are related to medicinal plants (Salmerón-Manzano et al. 2020). Out
of the total available medicinal plants, 3000 wild species are already identified for
their medicinal properties. India occupied the second position after China in the
world for the supply of fine, pure, and best-quality herbal and natural medicines
(Salmerón-Manzano et al.
2020; Agrawal and Paridhavi 2012). Figure 2.1 represents
the temporal evolution of medicinal plant publi cations in top countries. Figure
2.1
indicated that the Indian traditional system of application of medicinal plants is one
of the oldest systems of medicinal practice in the world and more than 80% of India’s
population still use plants as medicine to provide an essential healthcare service to
human and animal life (WHO
n.d.; Ahmad et al. 2021).
2.3 Effect of Adverse Environmental Conditions
on Medicinal Plant
Environment plays an important role in plant growth and development. The basic
factors that affect plant growth include light, temperature, water, humidity, and
nutrition. However, adverse environmental condition creates stress on plants and
as a result, weakens the plants and makes them more susceptible to disease or insect
attack. Due to various adverse environmental conditions, the physiological and
biological parameters are altered. As a result, the medicinal proper ties of plants are
reduced. A basic schematic illustration of the physiological and biochemical change
in plant cells due to adverse conditions is represented in Fig. 2.2. Therefore, it is
important to understand the basic factors and their possible manipulation to meet
their needs. The most important factors that influence medicinal plants are described
below.
2.3.1 Temperature Extremities
Temperature is one of the essential factors that influence various physiological
processes of most plants, that is, photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration, germina-
tion, and flowering. In general, the growth of plants is best when the temperature is
between 10 and 20 °C. However, several studies indicated that, at extreme
temperatures, the plant gives a negative impact on growth and development, physi-
ological processes, and lipid or hormonal signaling (Bita and Gerats
2013).
Belmehdi et al. (
2018), reported in their study that the highest percentage of seed
germination of the medicinal plant Origanum elongatum showed at 20 °C (54%),
whereas at temperatures of 10 °C, 15 °C, and 25 °C, the maximal germination was
12%, 44%, and 10%, respectively. Another study by Hatfield and Prueger (2015)
also reported that the process of pollination in plants is the most sensitive phenolog-
ical stage to extreme temperatures and due to extreme temperatures, the
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2 Medicinal Properties of the Plant Under Adverse Environmental Conditions 23
Fig. 2.1 Figure depicts the evolution of research on medicinal plants in top countries in the recent eras. (Derived from Salmerón-Manzano et al. 2020)
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developmental stage world greatly affects production. Zhang et al. ( 2022) reported
that the photosynthetically active radiation and air high temperature give a n egative
correlation with chlorophyll fluorescence parameter and at over 35 °C reduces the
growth and physiology of tomato plants. Vicente et al. (2020) reported that the seeds
of Hypericum ericoides exposed to intermediate temperatures of 10, 15, and 20 °C
cause a high percentage of germination, while higher temperatures of 25, 30, and
21/30 °C completely inhibit the germination. Therefore, it can be suggested that the
high temperature causes water deficit in soil, and as a result, future agricultural
production, food security, and medicines that are extracted from plants are
encountered.
24 A. Mahana
Fig. 2.2 Illustration of physiological and biochemical changes that occur in medicinal plant cells in
adverse environmental conditions. ROS = Reactive oxygen species; ATP = Adenosine triphos-
phate; PSII = Photosystem II; PSI = Photosystem I
2.3.2 Light
Light is another factor that refers to the intensity or concentration of sunlight that
varies with season and plays an important role in plant growth through its quantity,
quality, and durat ion. Vicente et al. (2020) resulted that light could not affect
germination in plants alone, but at a maximal level, in combination with temperature,
it gives a negative impact. In summer, excessive light stress in combination with
temperature leads to the overproduction of chloroplastic reactive oxygen species
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(ROS) in plants as a result implicated to both signaling and oxidative damage
(Exposito-Rodriguez et al. 2017).
2 Medicinal Properties of the Plant Under Adverse Environmental Conditions 25
2.3.3 Salinity
Salinity is one of the most detrimental environmental stresses that create a severe
issue for plant growth, and reduction in crop yield worldwide. The salt stress on
plants causes ionic toxicity, osmotic stress, and oxidative stress simultaneously and
as a result causes various physi ological and metabolic changes such as nutritional
imbalance, inhibition of water uptake, seed germination, photosynthesis, DNA
damage, production of ROS, induction of lipid peroxidation, and decrease in growth
(Gohari et al.
2023; Haider et al. 2023; Rao et al. 2019; Sheldon et al. 2017; Tanveer
et al.
2018). A study by Belmehdi et al. (2018) indicated that the low concentration
of NaCl (1 g L
-1
) helps in the seed germination of Origanum elongatum plant by
88% compared with control (3.4%), but at high concentration causes a significant
reduction of seed germination. High salinity (10 g L
-1
of NaCl) causes a complete
inhibition in seed germination (Belmehdi et al. 2018). Various other studies also give
the agreement with the negative impact of salinity stress on plants (Kumar et al.
2021; Groome et al. 1991). Kumar et al. (2021) reported in their study that the
increasing concentration of NaCl up to 200 mM significantly increases ROS (two-
fold) compared with control in the root and leaf of the plant Oenanthe javanica.
2.3.4 Drought
Drought is another condition that reduces leaf water potential, turgor pressure, and
stomatal closure and decreases cell growth and enlargement. Due to drought stress
cellular dehydration of plant cells occurs, water releases from cytosol and vacuole to
apoplast. It influences various physiological and biological functions, such as pho-
tosynthesis, chlorophyll synthesis, nutrient metabolism, ion uptake and transloca-
tion, respiration, and carbohydrate metabolism in plants (Hussain et al. 2018; Li et al.
2011). Several studies indicated that drought stress induces a decrease in yield and
yield component of maize, wheat, sugarcane, sunflower, peanut, and cotton
(Barnabás et al. 2008; Furlan et al. 2012; Kamara et al. 2003; Vasantha et al.
2005). Vasantha et al. (2005) reported in their study that the sugarcane yield was
reduced by 37% in drought treatment (67,770 ha
-1
).
2.4 Summary
The adverse environmental conditions on medicinal plants have been described with
a focus on the physiological and biological functions of medicinal plants. Global
climate change poses a threat to medicinal plants and therefore to traditional as well
as modern health care systems. In general, medicinal plants have the potential to
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adjust stress conditions at a certain level due to the presence of their antioxidant
system. However, according to available literature studies, it is seen that the adverse
environmental conditions at a maximal level induce ROS in the cell and as a result
damage the chloroplastic photosystem, mitochondrial respiration, induce lipid per-
oxidation, reduce water uptake, and so forth. As a result, plant growth and develo p-
ment are altered. However, rising interest and a
pplication of medicinal plants due to
their non-toxic, cost-effective, and eco-friendly nature, it gives the challenge to
protect and think about medicinal plants.
26 A. Mahana
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