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Ham. ex C. B.
Clarke
20.
Taxus
brevifolia Nutt.
Pacific yew Taxaceae Taxol Anti-tumour Rates (2001)
21. Terminalia arjuna
(Roxb. ex DC.)
Wight and Arn.
Arjuna or
arjun tree
Combretaceae Tannins, gallic acid, arjunic
acid, tannic acid, tannins,
saponins and phytosterols
Hepatoprotective, anticancer and
cardioprotective
Paarakh (2010b)
22. Terminalia
chebula Retz.
Harra Combretaceae Triterpenoids, ellagic acid
and derivatives of the
shikimic acid
Hepatoprotective, renoprotective,
anti-diabetic, antioxidant
Rathinamoorthy
and Thilagavathi
(2014)
23. Tinospora sinensis
(Lour.) Merr.
Giloy Menispermaceae Diterpenoid furanolactones
(tinosporin), isoquinoline
alkaloids
Immunomodulator,
chemopreventive,
Cardioprotective, Antidiabetic
Mittal et
al.
(2014)
24. Withania
somnifera (L.)
Dunal
Ashagwanda Solanaceae Withanolides, particularly
withaferin A and steroidal
lactones
Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s
disease are treated with
immunomodulatory, cancer-
preventive, memory-enhancing
drugs and chemotherapy
Umadevi et al.
(2012)
25. Zingiber officinale
Roscoe
Ginger Zingiberaceae Zingerone, gingerols and
mono but also
sesquiterpenoids
Hypercholesterolemic,
antioxidant, hepatoprotective,
anti-atherosclerotic, anti-
cancerous
Gupta and
Sharma (
2014)
1 An Overview of Medicinal Plants: Drugs of Tomorrow 7
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8 R. K. Ahirwar
1.2.2 Traditional Chinese Medicine
When European cultures evolved with only some camouflage, Chinese and Indian
civilizations grew and prospered. We anticipate seeing a lot of studies on both the
beauty of greenery and therapeutic plants. This more than 50 00-year-old medical
system is founded on two distinct beliefs concerning the natural principles of health
and longevity, namely, yin and yang and the five elements (wu xing). Herbs were
mentioned by the legendary Emperor Shennong in his writings, which may have
been penned about 2500 BP rather than the conventional 3500 BP, when Chinese
medicine was systematised and recorded in 100 and 200 BP, nearly 6000
medications are listed; 4800 of which have a botanical origin. The opposites of yin
and yang are complementary to one another.
The four humours and elements of the Greeks as well as the three humours of
Ayurveda are analogous to the five-element theory. Earth, metal, water, wood and
fire are the five elements. They are related to the body’s five major organ systems
(spleen, lungs, kidneys, heart and liver), emotions (reflection, sadness, fear, anger
and joy), climate (wet, dry, cold, wind and cold), seasons (late summer, autumn,
spring and summer) and taste (sweet, spicy, salty, sour and bitter), among other
things.
There are yin and yang aspects to the harmony between these components and the
supply of life force (qi) . Therefore, in addition to symptoms, therapy is based on an
imbalanced image that is typically seen while taking the pulse or looking at the
patient’s tongue. Her bs that are warm or hot, like ginger and cinnamon, are used to
alleviate ailments like chilly hands, dyspepsia and stomach pain that are connected to
cold symptoms. Chinese herbal medicine is often sold in set combinations or recipes
of up to 20 herbs, just as Western and African traditional remedies. These recipes are
painstakingly produced in accordance with age-old compendiums of traditional
Chinese cooking. Such prescriptions are widely utilised in Western medicine and
number in the hundreds. Similar to other medical cultures, traditional formulae are
often employed to treat chroni c illnesses, and Western medicine is utilised to treat
acute or life-threatening illnesses. Unquestionably, the popularity of herbal
medicines today is a result of Chinese medicine’s dissemination across the majority
of the world’s conti nents. The polymorphic form of angelica is a well-known
example of a Chinese medi cinal plant: Panax ginseng (renshen), Ephedra sinica
(ma hang), Artemisia annua (quing hao) and Rheum palmatum (de huang).
1.2.3 European Traditional Medicine System
The rational advancement of the use of herbal remedies in the ancient West was
greatly influenced by the Greeks. However, Hippocrates (460–377
BC) and Aristotle
(384–322
BC) are credited with developing the medical syst em in Europe, and both
men’s theories drew inspiration from prehistoric Indian and Egyptian beliefs. In his
History of Plants, the philosopher and naturalist Theophratus (300
BC) studied
therapeutic aspects of plants and emphasised how cultivation may change their
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characteristics. The collection, storage and use of herbs were documented by the
Greek physician Dioscorides (100
AD) while he travelled with the Roman army.
Galen (130–200
AD), a pharmacy and medicine practitioner and teacher in Rome,
published no less than 30 books on these topics and is renowned for the intricate
formulae and recipes he used in complex medicines, which occasionally includes
hundreds of substances (“Galenicals”). Based on the idea that the world is co
mposed
of four elements—earth, wind, fire and water—Greek and Roman medicines were
developed. There are four significant bodily fluids that each of them corresponds to,
and each has a unique chewing gum to go with it. The four bodily fluids—blood,
phlegm, black bile and yellow bile—have an impact on mood and physical health
(bloody, phlegm, melancholy and bile, respectively). Bloodletting and cleaning,
which reduce excess blood and black bile, are extreme methods used to
re
-establish equilibrium. There is a matching cold, hot, wet or dry herb for each of
these four body fluids that is supposed to correct imbalances. These four biological
fluids are likewise related to the four elements of cold, hot, moist and dry. On
regional folk customs and traditions, European traditions have also had a significant
regional influence.
1 An Overview of Medicinal Plants: Drugs of Tomorrow 9
The famous “De Materia
Medica” (Medical Materia Medica) book by the Greek
physician, Dioscorides, from the first century AD, had the most impact. It is widely
considered as the first herbalist in Europe and has served as the norm there for more
than a millennium, serving as the inspiration for the majority of succeeding herbs.
Monasteries in Central Europe cultivated medicinal plants using a regular arrange-
ment at the beginning of the year 800
AD. Hildegard of Bingen was one of the
renowned healers of her time (1098–1179). Following this, the Swiss alchemist
Paracelsus (1493–1541) highlighted the need of appropriate dose. Many European
nations still use herbal medicine as a common practise, and it is still well-liked as a
sophisticated and logical kind of disease therapy that is frequently seen as supportive
rather than curative. Herbal tea is still a fairly common beverage in many European
nations today. Additionally, sophisticated plant preparations (standardised and
designed plant extracts, frequently bore-tested on people) and “natural goods”
ingested in their original (unprocessed) form in tea or decoction continue to be
well-liked alternatives to solely synthetic chemical-derived medicines. Due to com-
mercialization, many traditional European herbs were widely utilised. Additionally,
several active chemicals were extracted from medical plants and are still in use today
as standalone chemical substances.
1.2.4 Traditional Medicine of Arabic and North African
The oldest written information in the Arabic tradition comes from the Sumerians and
Akkadians of Mesopotamia and therefore comes from the same region as the
archaeological records of Shanidar IV (Heinrich et al. 2017).
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10 R. K. Ahirwar
Documents of Shanidar IV
The earliest documented record, which presumably relates to medicinal
plants, dates from 60,000
BCE in the grave of the Neanderthal man from
Shanidar IV, an archeological site in Iraq. Pollen of several species of plants,
presumably used as medicines, was discovered among which are: Centaurea
solstitialis (Asteraceae), Ephedra altissima (Ephedraceae), Althea
sp. (Malvaceae) amongst others. Although this may not be a finding with no
direct bearing on the culture of Shanidar, these species or closely related ones
from the same genus, are still important today in the phytotherapy of Iraq and
also known from other cultural traditions. These species may well be typical
for the Neanderthal people and may also be part of a tradition for which
Shaidar IV represents the first available record.
Several of the plants that are grown now were tamed in the middle East, which is
regarded as the birthplace of civilization. Cuneiform was used by the Babylonians,
Assyrians and Sumerians to engrave plants on a large number of clay tablets. The
Code of Hammurabi, a complete collection of civil rules engraved in stone and
ordered by the Babylonian monarchs, dates to around 1700
BC and is of particular
relevance. It includes a number of therapeutic plants. Egypt has kept copies of such
documents for thousands of years. For tomb frescoes and papyrus from the ancient
kingdom, the latter created by Cyperus aquaticus, the Egyptians employed their
expertise, including medicine and medicine. The most significant of these
documents is the Ebers Papyrus, which is thought to have been created about
1500
BC and includes 3000 BC-era medical knowledge. The famous 20-m-high
papyrus scroll with Egyptian hieroglyphics inscribed on it is said to have been
found in the tomb and named after Professor Ebers George in Terrez in 1872.
When it was sent to the Uni versity of Leipzig in 1873 for storage, G. Ebers published
a facsimile of it 2 years later.
The Ebers Papyrus is a book utilised as a medical reference that discusses all
illnesses, their symptoms and symbolic methods of treatment. Impressive diagnostic
precision is described in this paper. The Arabs were in charge of preserving the
majority of Greco-Roman experience and expanding it to include the use of their
own resources, as well as Chinese and Ayurvedic herbs that were previously
unknown to the Greco-Roman world. If monasteries in nations like England, Ireland
and Germany preserved artefacts of Western knowledge in the dark and mediaeval
(fifth–twelfth centuries AD), the Arabs were responsible for doing the same for
Western knowledge. In the eighth century, Arabs set the precedent for the construc-
tion of independent drug stores, and Avicenna, a Persian apothecary, physician,
philosopher and poet, made significant contributions to the science of pharmacy and
medicine in all of his writi ngs, including canon medicine, which is regarded as “the
final codification of all Greco-Roman medicine.” The independent Islamic medical
system known today as Unani-Tibb was built on the foundation of Canon medicinae,
which integrated components from different healing systems. Famous medicinal
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plants of the Middle East and Egypt include: Allium cepa (Onion), Astracantha
gummifera (Tragacanth), Carthamus tinctorius (Safflower), Carum c arvi (Carway),
Ferula assafoetida (Asofoetida), Lawsonia inrmis (Henna), Papaver somniferum
(Opium poppy), Peganum harmala (Syrian rue), Prunus dulcis (Almond), Punica
gratum (Pomegranate), Rosa × damascene (Damascus rose), Ricinus communies
(castor oil p lant), Salvadora persi ca (Toothbrush tree), Senna Alexandr
ia (Senna),
Sesamum indicum (Sasame), Trachyspermum ammi (Ajawaan), Trigonella
foenumgraecum (Fenugreek) and Vitis vinifera (Grape).
1 An Overview of Medicinal Plants: Drugs of Tomorrow 11
1.3 Ethnobotany and Ethnomedicine
1.3.1 Ethnobotany
Hasberg coined the term “ethnobotany” for the first time in 1896. He described it as
the research of plants utilised by indigenous and prehistoric humans. When Robbins,
Harrington and Freire-Mareco proposed expanding the definition of ethnob otanical
science in 1916, they suggested including the analysis of all life stages in prehistoric
societies as well as the impact of the plant environment on current tribal peoples’
living traditi ons, beliefs and histories. Twenty-five years later (Jones 1941), came up
with a more succinct definition: the study of interrelationship between plants and
primitive man. Schultes expanded it in 1967 to include “the relationship between
man and the surrounding vegetation.”
1.3.2 Ethnobotany and the Search for New Drugs
As mentioned above, plants form the basis of traditional medicine systems and have
been used for thousands or thousands of years in countries, such as China and India
(Chang and But 1986; Kapoor 1990). It is well known that numerous civilizations
throughout the world employ plants as part of their traditional medical practises.
These plant-based systems continue to play an important role in healthcare, with the
World Health Organization estimating that 80% of the world’s population continues
to rely primarily on traditional medicine systems for healthcare (World Health
Organization 2008). The remaining 20% of people, the majority of whom reside in
industrialised nations, likewise depend heavily on plant-based meals for their health
systems. An analysis of US community pharm acy prescription data from 1959 to
1980 showed that 25% contained plant extracts or active substances from higher
plants, and at least 119 chemicals from 90 plants could be considered important
drugs currently in use in one or more countries (Farnsworth et al. 1985); 74% of
these 119 medications were found through chemical research focused at extracting
active components from plants utilised in conventional treatment. Additionally, in
recent decades, there has been an upsurge in the usage of purported supplementary or
alternative botanical products. French pharmacists Caventoux and Pelletier
published a paper in 1820 on the isolation of the antimalarial medication quinine
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from the bark of Cinchona species, such as Cincona officinalis. Indigenous
populations in the Amazon have long utilised the bark to cure fever, and it was
originally brought to Europe in the early 1600s to treat malaria. Modern medicine
can assess the four primary ways that indigenous peoples use plants:
12 R. K. Ahirwar
1. The alkaloid
D-tubocurarine, which is derived from the South American jungle
liana, is one example of a plant from the tropics that is occasionally employed as a
source of direct medicinal compounds. In surgery, Condodendron tomentosum is
frequently used as a muscle relaxant. Chemists still rely on wildlife collecting
since they are unable to synthesis and create the medication in a way that has all
the qualities of a natural product. Unexpectedly, gathering therapeutic herbs is
frequently less expensive than purchasing manufactured, synthetic medications.
Reserpine, a significant hypertensive drug derived from Rauwolfia, is another
excellent illustration of this trait. Such molecules will require three times as much
synthesis energy as they do collect energy.
2. Semi-synthetic chemi cals are also developed from tropical plants as a starting
point. An illustration of this is the chemical alteration of saponin extracts to
manufacture the saponins required to make ster oid medicines. Up until recently,
extracts of the genus Diocarea’s neotropical yams accounted for 95% of all
steroids.
3. Tropic plants can provide a supply of raw materials that can be exploited to create
novel synthetic chemicals. For the synthesis of several local anaesthetics, includ-
ing procaine, cocaine from the coca plant, Erythroxylum coca, serves as a model.
Plants’ novel and uncommon molecules will continue to be used as “blueprints”
for novel synthetic compounds and will become more and more significant in the
future.
4. Additionally, plants can be utilised as taxonomic markers to find novel chemicals.
The plant kingdom is randomly ordered from the perspective of phytochemistry;
certain families have received a fair amount of research, while others have
received absolutely little attention at all. For instance, the Liliaceae family has a
long history of medicinal usage and is well-known for its abundance of alkaloids.
Orchidaceae, on the other hand, is a little understood family. The close ties
between several of these plants and the Liliaceae family have been investigated.
Studies have revealed that in addition to being abundant in alkaloids, several of
these alkaloids are also distinct and may one day be beneficial.
1.4 Medicinal Plants of Future Prospects
Medicinal plants have a promising future as there are about half a million plants
worldwide and most of them have not yet been studied for their medical activities
and their hidden potential for medical activities may be important in current and
future study treatments (Singh 2015). Medical plants may have had a significant part
in the evolution of human civilization, including in religion and other rites. Many of
the many contemporary medications, like aspirin, are made in part from medicinal
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plants. Many food crops, like garlic, have therapeutic properties. Understanding
plant toxicity and safeguarding people and animals from n atural poisons are made
possible, thanks to the study of therapeutic plants. The secondary metabolites that
plants produce are what give them their medicinal properties. In light of this, interest
in studying the chemistry of natural products is rising (Dar et al.
2017
). The
therapeutic need, the remarkable diversity of chemical structure and biological
activities of naturally occurring secondary metabolites, the usefulness of new natural
bioactive compounds like biochemic al screening, and the availability of novel and
sensitive detection methods are some of the possible causes of this interest. Devel-
opment is a part of it. The need for very pure and structurally complex natural goods
is being met by improvements in biological
ly active natural products and better
methods to isolate these active substances (Clark 1996 ). The World Health Organi-
zation has established protocols, rules and standards for botanical medicine in
recognition of the value of conventional medicine. When growing, manufacturing
and processing medicinal plants, agro-industrial processes must be used (World
Health Organization 1993). Many current pharmaceuticals are created in part by
plants, and medicinal plants provide a source for developing novel medications. The
development of new medications uses medicinal plants as natur al resources
(Fig.
1.2).
1 An Overview of Medicinal Plants: Drugs of Tomorrow 13
Fig. 1.2 Methods for obtaining active substances from plants
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14 R. K. Ahirwar
1.5 Conclusion
An overview of the significance of medicinal plants throughout history is provided in
this work. Pharmaceuticals have undoubtedly had a rich history, but they have
developed over time to become a staple in a number of industries, including
pharmaceuticals, pharmaceuticals and natural products chemistry. The value of
plants as a source of medicines is now acknowledged by all these scientific fields,
and they have all started active research projects to find fresh leads or create
appropriate chemicals. With between 10 and 100 million species thought to exist
on Earth, higher plants make up a group of about 250,000 species, only 6% of which
have been studied for their biological activities and 15% for their medicinal
properties. It appears that we have only begun to scratch the surface of this incredible
global resource. While the pharmaceutical industry in affluent nations will continue
to look into potential leads in natural goods in an effort to produce new medicines,
the creation of new medicines in underdeveloped nations may have completely
different objectives. In some regions of the world, if a plant is easily accessible
and capable of offering a cheap therapy for a disease, something may very well be
done. It is anticipated that close cooperation between medical professionals and
scientists would result in g oods that are reliable, high-calibre and efficient. Pharma-
cognosy, a discipline or science that was formerly seen as being inactive, has a
highly promising future since it will continue to produce novel molecular leads for
the most important diseases we are currently facing. There is a lot of strong evidence
in the literature to support this, and research can be expected to shed more light on
these issues as long as key researchers are involved and adequate funding is
provided. However, issues, such as conservation of plant and biodiversity data,
should not be overlooked, as this would pose significant challenges to the search
for new markers. There are more chances than ever to continue making a significant
difference for health reasons, given the growing interest in natural goods among the
general public, academic researchers and multinational corporations worldwide.
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