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234
J.R. Watkins and R.W. Aye
Table 16.1 Factors
contributing to fundoplication
failure
Tension Radial
Axial
Technical Misplaced wrap
Incomplete hiatal dissection
Misidentied GEJ
Loose sutures
Improperly tied knots
Poor tissue bites
Surgeon experience
Asymmetric fundoplication
Tightness of fundoplication
Tightness of crural closure
Patient factors BMI >35
Acid-suppression medication
unresponsiveness
Barrett’s esophagus
Atypical symptoms
Psychiatric illness
Short esophagus
Post-operative diaphragmatic stressors
16.2 Causes of Failure
While the reasons for such a high recurrence rate of paraesophageal hernia are multifactorial, there are several factors that are generally recognized (Table16.1). These
likely not only caused the primary operation to fail, but will also lead to failure of
the re-operation if they are not recognized and addressed. These can be broken
down into physiologic factors and technical factors. The physiologic factors relate
to the intrinsic and extrinsic forces exerted on the esophagus and gastroesophageal
junction. Technical factors are related to intraoperative surgical decision-making
and execution as well as post-operative care. Most of these factors can be addressed
with careful planning and surgeon experience. It is important to identify causes of
failure and properly address them in order to avoid repeating the same mistake that
led to the initial recurrence.
16.2.1 Radial andAxial Tension
There are two major forces acting on the repair of the hiatal hernia that lead to disruption of the repair and ultimate failure: radial tension and axial tension (Fig.16.1).
Radial tension at the hiatus acts upon the diaphragm in a plane perpendicular to the
esophagus. This tension results in the movement of crural bers away from the
16 Revision Strategies forRecurrent Paraesophageal Hiatal Hernia
Fig. 16.1 Diagram of
forces acting upon the
esophagus and GEJ.Axial
tension acts parallel to the
esophagus and causes
cephalad migration. Radial
tension acts perpendicular
to the esophagus but
parallel to the diaphragm
and results in widening of
the crura
235
midline and a widening of the diaphragmatic hiatus. It is opposed by the phrenoesophageal ligament which helps keep the hiatus in place around the esophagus.
The dynamic nature of the diaphragm and its constant motion over time causes
stretching and even break down of a sutured crural repair with resultant failure and
recurrence of the hernia. When the radial forces overcome the forces keeping the
hiatus together, the hiatus loosens and allows herniation to occur. When repairing
hiatal hernias, increased radial tension is manifested as difculty re-approximating
the left and right crural pillars.
Axial tension is related to the cephalad forces acting on the esophagus both
intrinsically and extrinsically and is manifest as the tendency for the gastroesophageal junction (GEJ) to migrate upward into the mediastinum. There is a natural
physiologic movement of the GEJ of up to 2.5cm in non-hernia patients, with the
phrenoesophageal membrane acting as an elastic recoil mechanism to return the
GEJ to its proper anatomic conguration [8]. When the phrenoesophageal ligament
becomes attenuated, the amount of recoil decreases and results in herniation [9].
Additional forces include negative intra-thoracic pressure, positive intra-abdominal
pressure, contractile forces of the longitudinal esophageal musculature, and
increased intra-gastric pressure. In addition, chronic displacement of the GE
junction into the chest combined with brosis from recurrent esophagitis can make
236
re- establishment of adequate intra-abdominal esophagus difcult (short esophagus),
with resultant axial tension on the repair. After primary repair of a paraesophageal
hernia, this axial tension acting on the esophagus continues unopposed and can
result in disruption of the hiatal closure or any xation sutures resulting in intrathoracic migration of the GEJ and fundoplication.
J.R. Watkins and R.W. Aye
16.2.2 Technical Issues
There are several technical factors at the time of the index operation over which the
surgeon has control and which can result in reduced likelihood of recurrence. A full
mobilization of the distal esophagus up to or above the inferior pulmonary veins
will improve intra-abdominal length and decrease axial tension on the short esophagus. Intra-operative endoscopy with endoscopic conrmation of the squamocolumnar junction will aid in correctly placing the wrap at and above the GE
junction rather than too low.
The actual shaping of the fundoplication by utilizing the correct portion of the
fundus and bringing it around the esophagus with the proper conguration is critical. If the gastric body rather than the fundus is used to construct the wrap, a type
III failure may occur (Fig.16.2). In order to avoid an overly tight wrap, the fundoplication is most often constructed over a bougie. Data suggests a decrease in postoperative dysphagia with the use of a bougie. There is however a real possibility of
dilator perforation during insertion, which is estimated at 1% [10, 11]. In addition,
standardization of crural closure has been elusive, and an overly tight cruroplasty
may lead to postoperative dysphagia and need for dilation or revision, whereas
overly loose closure can be a factor in recurrent herniation.
16.2.3 Patient Factors
There are several factors relating to the patients that can affect the rate of recurrence.
Paraesophageal hernias occur mainly in the aging population, which is likely related
to attenuation of the phrenoesophageal membrane (and perhaps other connective
tissue involving the repair) and subsequent recurrence [9]. Factors that put patients
at a higher risk of failure are pre-operative (body mass index) BMI >35, unresponsiveness to acid-reducing medications, atypical symptoms, and psychiatric illness
[12]. While there is no absolute BMI cutoff beyond which a repair should not be
performed, dietary counseling and referral to a bariatric surgeon should be considered for any patients with BMI >35. Post-operatively, tight nausea control should be
implemented in order to avoid retching, which can increase intra-abdominal pressure and is a primary factor associated with recurrence. In addition, patients should
be counseled to avoid any inordinate heavy lifting, straining or strenuous exercise
which could lead to increased intra-abdominal pressure and resultant recurrence.
16 Revision Strategies forRecurrent Paraesophageal Hiatal Hernia
237
Fig. 16.2 Classication of fundoplication failure. Type Ia—The entire wrap along with the GEJ
migrates cephalad. Type Ib—The wrap remains below the diaphragm but the stomach and the GEJ slip
cephalad. Type II—True paraesophageal hernia. Type III—Defective initial construction of the wrap
using the gastric body rather than the fundus (modied with permission from ref. [53])
16.2.4 Classication ofFailures
Anatomic failure can be classied based on the type of failure and it is helpful to
identify the type of failure as an indicator of the underlying cause (Fig.16.2). Increased
radial and axial tension can lead to a Type IA failure and is seen when the entire wrap
along with the gastroesophageal junction migrates cephalad resulting in an intra-thoracic fundoplication. This is the most common type of failure. A variation on this
problem is the so-called slipped Nissen, or Type IB failure in which the wrap remains
238
J.R. Watkins and R.W. Aye
below the diaphragm but the stomach and the gastroesophageal junction slip upward
through the wrap resulting in the GEJ residing within the mediastinum. This failure
may occur due to misjudging the location of the true GEJ with the wrap placed low
around the cardia instead of the fundus, from increased axial tension due to unrecognized short esophagus, or as a result of chronic stress on the GEJ from intra-gastric
pressure. When in doubt, poor placement can be avoided by intraoperative endoscopy
and identication of the true junction. Type II failure is analogous to the true paraesophageal hernia. Breakdown of the crural repair sutures with an intact wrap and
normally located GEJ can result in intra-thoracic stomach with dysphagia, pain, or
potential gastric volvulus despite an appropriately placed wrap. Finally, a defective
initial construction of the wrap results in a Type III failure as described above, caused
by utilizing the mid-body of the stomach to fashion the wrap rather than the fundus.
16.3 Identifying Recurrence After Hiatal Hernia Repair
Identifying and dening symptoms is one of the most important steps in treating recurrent hernias. Many patients experience new symptoms after an otherwise satisfactory
primary hernia repair, such as gas-bloat, hyper-atulence, or mild dysphagia even in
the absence of documented anatomical defects or technical errors. Without investigations it may be difcult to determine which symptoms are due to the physiologic effects
of the wrap versus the effects of a recurrence. It is imperative then to obtain a good
symptomatic history detailing exactly when the symptoms started, progression, and
temporal relation to oral intake. Symptomatic management is the rst step in the early
postoperative period unless there is strong reason to suspect disorder of the repair. For
persistent, progressive, or atypical symptoms, objective studies will be needed to determine the presence and correlation of anatomic defects with symptoms.
The most common post-operative symptoms related to recurrence are heartburn,
regurgitation, dysphagia, and pain [13]. Any of these may be the result of the repair
itself. For example, the sensation of heartburn may be caused by esophageal distension or spasm secondary to the effect of the wrap rather than failure of the repair.
However, if any of these symptoms persist beyond the rst 3months, a focused
workup should be implemented in order to identify any possible recurrence and
assist therapeutic decision-making.
It is reasonable to start with two-phase esophagography. This test will help elucidate esophageal and gastric anatomy including an obstructing repair, anatomic recurrence and its classication, intra-thoracic wrap migration, and strictures or other
anatomic abnormalities and is the most sensitive test for recurrent herniation (Fig.16.3)
[14]. It can also provide useful information on the basic function of the gastroesophageal junction and valve, visualizing both transit and reux, though it is less reliable
with regard to recurrent reux. The pylorus can be examined as well in order better
identify vagal injury and resultant hypertonicity of the sphincter mechanism. Anatomic
recurrence is commonly dened as 2 or morecm of stomach and/or GEJ above the
diaphragmatic crura although several variations of the diagnostic criteria exist [15].
16 Revision Strategies forRecurrent Paraesophageal Hiatal Hernia
239
Endoscopy is important in the workup in order to visualize any intra-luminal
abnormalities. Erosions, esophagitis, or gastritis can be identied and help reinforce
the diagnoses of reux and recurrence. A recurrent hiatal hernia can be seen and the
conguration of the gastroesophageal ap valve based on the Hill system can be
graded (Fig.16.4). The presence of a stricture or narrowing may prompt additional
manometric evaluation. Rarely, erosion of suture or mesh into the lumen will be
detected.
Fig. 16.3 Images from video contrast esophagograms demonstrating fundoplication failure. Type
Ia failure is shown on the left, with both the intact wrap and GEJ herniated above the level of the
diaphragm. A type Ib failure is seen in the right image with only the GEJ herniating above the level
of the diaphragm while the majority of the fundus remains intra-abdominal
Fig. 16.4 Endoscopic view of Type II or true paraesophageal hernia failure. Note the GEJ is below
the diaphragm but the fundus has herniated cephalad creating a characteristic endoscopic view
240
Manometry is not an essential part of the evaluation of recurrent PEH, but may
prove useful in certain circumstances. If pre-operative manometry is available and
the patient denies any new dysphagia, then repeat manometric evaluation is unlikely
to add any additional usefulness. However, if the patient has new-onset dysphagia
or there is uncertainty surrounding the patient’s esophageal motility, then manometry should be performed to rule out any esophageal motility disorders of the esophageal body or the reconstructed GEJ, to help determine optimal reconstruction.
Objective evaluation of reux in the form of 24-h pH monitoring is vital to identify the presence of acid reux, especially if anatomic recurrence is subtle or absent
and the etiology of symptoms is unclear. In the case of large recurrent anatomic
defects clearly attributable to the patient’s symptoms, pH monitoring is less helpful
as re-operation is likely regardless of the pH study outcome. Any patients with
symptoms of reux and a positive DeMeester score in the setting of anatomic recurrence should be considered for revisional surgery.
If there is concern for vagus nerve injury or impaired gastric motility, a gastric emptying study is helpful in determining gastric function. The incidence of gastroparesis requiring a gastric emptying procedure can be as high as 12% after re- operation and increases
with each subsequent recurrence [16]. A patient who gives a history of nausea or extended
bloating after meals should make the surgeon suspicious for gastric emptying issues. If a
gastric emptying test shows delayed gastric emptying, careful consideration must be
given to the management of abnormal gastric emptying in the setting of previous hernia
repair. If on endoscopy the pylorus is dysfunctional, a trial of endoscopic botulinum toxin
may improve emptying and signal a good chance of success for pylorplasty or pyloromyotomy at the time of reoperation [17]. If the sphincter mechanism is functional without
increased tone or obstruction, however, then pro-motility agents may be attempted.
J.R. Watkins and R.W. Aye
16.3.1 When toOperate
The indications for re-operation are similar to those for primary operation: symptoms from herniation such as obstruction/risk of incarceration, dysphagia, anemia,
and dyspnea; or symptoms of inadequately controlled reux. The operative risks
and the predictability of success are a bit more problematic and there should be a
higher threshold for recommending re-operation, particularly in the elderly. As with
primary surgery, it is vital to determine the goals of the operation relative to the
patient’s symptoms and objective ndings and to weigh the risks against the realistic expectation of benet. In some cases continued medical management may be the
better alternative until the situation progresses.
16.4 Surgical Strategies
Although once the mainstay of re-operative hiatal hernia repair, the open approach
has been largely supplanted by laparoscopic paraesophageal hernia repair over the
last 20years. Compared to the open trans-abdominal and trans-thoracic approaches,
16 Revision Strategies forRecurrent Paraesophageal Hiatal Hernia
Table 16.2 Key operative steps in the management of recurrent paraesophageal hernia repair
Step Details
1. Anesthesia/preparation Pre-operative antibiotics, VTE prophylaxis, placement of
2. Entry/insufation Veress, direct optical, or open entry per surgeon
3. Adhesiolysis Establish plane between caudate lobe and pre-aortic fascia
4. Hiatal dissection Proceed from anterior rim freeing up left and right rim of
5. Identication/preservation of
vagus nerves
6. Takedown of previous
fundoplication
7. Crural closure Determine amount of tension on crus and close primarily
8. Intraoperative endoscopy Identify true GEJ by applying pressure with blunt grasper
9. Evaluation of esophageal
length
10. Fundoplication Perform full or partial fundoplication depending on
urinary catheter
preference. Preliminary placement of liver retractor with
re-adjustment after adhesiolysis
continuing on to right crus
hiatus and stomach from retroperitoneum
Nerves are at risk due to displacement at hiatus, must take
care dissecting the 12 and 6–7 o’clock positions. Identify
nerves on proximal esophagus more easily and follow
distally
Divide previous fundus, take down both anterior and
posterior wings of fundus and remaining attachments
must be divided. Restore normal anatomy and investigate
for injury
with mesh overlay. May choose to perform diaphragmatic
relaxing incision with PTFE bridge
and correlating with intra-luminal ndings. Check for
injury using insufation and leak test
Complete hiatal mobilization and retract GEJ anterior
towards hiatus and measure intra-abdominal length.
Utilize lengthening procedure or Hill xation sutures if
less than 2.5cm
surgeon preference with or without gastropexy
241
laparoscopy has been shown to decrease hospital length of stay, postoperative pain,
and respiratory complications while offering similar outcomes [18, 19]. In experienced hands, the laparoscopic approach is safe even in the setting of previous laparoscopy or even laparotomy with low conversion rates of around 7% [20, 21]. It has been
shown that results with reoperation are superior in experienced centers, however, and
typically these operations should be performed only by surgeons experienced in reoperative repair [22]. If there is concern for ischemia, perforation or gross spillage,
however, an open approach may be warranted [23]. Important key steps relating to
re-operative paraesophageal hernia repair will be discussed in this section (Table16.2).
16.4.1 Preparation
It is important to communicate with anesthesia regarding the preparation of the patient
for the operating room, including the expected duration of the case and the potential
for higher than usual blood loss or the need to convert to open surgery. Pre-operative
242
J.R. Watkins and R.W. Aye
antibiotics are given, particularly given the higher risk of enterotomy, along with subcutaneous heparin for venous thromboembolus prophylaxis [24]. A urinary catheter is
used routinely for urine output monitoring given the unknown expected length of reoperations. If the patient has any other concerning comorbidities or invasive hemodynamic monitoring is desired, a radial arterial line may be placed.
16.4.2 Exposure/Dissect3ion
Once the patient is positioned, the abdomen is entered and insufated. If there are
concerns about extensive adhesions, an open entry approach can be performed.
There is little difference, however, between the safety of entry method even in the
setting of a re-operation. A veress needle or direct optical entry can be used for insufation without any difference in rate of complications [25]. We have found left subcostal veress needle insertion followed by optical entry to be highly reliable and safe
even following prior upper laparotomy for peritonitis. In the presence of extensive
adhesions, a second port is placed wherever access can be obtained following initial
entry and adhesions are progressively divided until further ports can be placed.
Once the abdomen is insufated, a liver retractor is preliminarily put into place. It
will likely need to be adjusted once typical adhesions between stomach and liver are
divided. General adhesiolysis is performed to free the working space in the upper
abdomen, making sure to avoid any bowel or other intra-abdominal viscera. If bowel
is injured during the taking down of adhesions, a repair with interrupted 3-0 silk suture
or a two-layer closure with inner absorbable suture is appropriate. Once all gross
adhesions are divided, the dissection of the hiatus is started inferiorly between the
stomach and the left lobe of the liver. Care must be taken to avoid starting or extending
so inferiorly that the hepatic artery or bile duct structures are at risk. The initial goal
should be establishing a plane between the caudate lobe and the left aspect of the preaortic fascia/left crus, as this plane will take one safely upward to the right aspect of
the hiatus and right lateral crus (Fig.16.5). There are usually adhesions from the previous surgery around this area and it is important to free up the plane from medial to
the caudate lobe to the point that the inferior vena cava can be visualized and pro-
Fig. 16.5 Establishing the plane between the caudate lobe and the stomach and pre-aortic fascia.
The inferior vena cava must be visualized and protected, being careful not to injure the vessel.
Once this plane is freed, the right crus is identied and the hiatal dissection begun
16 Revision Strategies forRecurrent Paraesophageal Hiatal Hernia
243
tected, being careful not to injure the vessel. Once this plane is freed, the right crus can
be identied and the hiatal dissection begun.
From this point the dissection is performed from the aspect which is most clear
and expedient, and this will continue to change throughout the dissection. Typically
we begin along the anterior rim of the hiatus dening the plane between the crus and
the edge of the stomach. The left anterior aspect of this dissection can be difcult and
it is often helpful at this point to move to the left posterior aspect of the dissection,
freeing the stomach from the retroperitoneum and working posteriorly and medially
as far as possible. This will gain access to the posterior-left aspect of the hiatus which
can then be followed anteriorly. The right posterior dissection can be particularly
challenging if the stomach is densely adherent to the pre-aortic fascia and the plane
of dissection is not clear. This may require bold dissection with the risk of
enterotomy.
One of the most important points in redo hiatal hernia surgery is identication
and preservation of the vagus nerves. Because of adhesions, the location of the
nerves often deviates from normal anatomy. Particular care must be taken when dissecting at the 12 o’clock and the 6–7 o’clock positions around the hiatus. The anterior vagus nerve may be adhered anteriorly to the pericardium and can be
inadvertently damaged while taking down the hernia sac. It is also at risk in the
region of the GEJ.The posterior vagus nerve can be adhered posteriorly along the
aorta to the decussation of the left and right crura and can be easily injured while
dissecting the esophagus posteriorly. During re-do operations, scar tissue and adhesions around the hiatus and prior fundoplication make vagal identication difcult,
and the nerves are best identied proximally along the esophagus in the mediastinum and followed distally towards the fundoplication.
Once the hiatus has been freed and vagus nerves are identied and preserved,
the previous fundoplication can be taken down. It is important to restore the stomach and especially the fundus to its normal anatomic state in order to correctly
identify landmarks and fashion a new fundoplication. Failure to completely un-do
the prior fundoplication will likely result in another incorrectly performed fundoplication and high likelihood of failure. Once the hernia is reduced and the fundoplication can be visualized, it is helpful to slide a grasper into the inferior portion
Fig. 16.6 A previous fundoplication is identied anteriorly (left) where the anterior and posterior
portion of the fundus were previously sutured together. This is dissected and divided using an
energy device (right)