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Essential Oils and Their Biological Applications
Sesquiterpenes and Oxygenated Compounds
Biosynthetically sesquiterpenes are derived from farnesyl diphosphate by different enzyme-catalyzed
cyclization reactions and rearrangements of carbon skeleton. Mono, bi and tricyclic forms of sesquiterpenes are commonly found in EOs in plants and shown wide range of biological activities (Merfort,
2011). Sesquiterepene molecular formula is C
. Chamazulene is found in German chamomile and
15H24
has a pharmacological action (Safayhi et al., 1994). Oxygenated functional group is found in EOs are
the most common type group. The α-bisabolene and β-caryophyllene are the example of sesquiterpene
(Swamy et al., 2015).
Diterpenes
Biosynthetically diterpenes are derived from Geranyl geranyl pyrophosphate via the HMG-CoA reductase
pathway with being a primary intermediate by plants, animals and fungi. Diterpenes belongs to the class
of chemical compounds and molecular formula of diterpene is C
units Retinol, retinal, and phytol are the biologically active diterpenes compounds and they give antiinflammatory and antimicrobial activity (Breitmaier, 2006; Davis et al., 2000).
and composed of four isoprene
20H32
Triterpene
Triterpenes structurally large diverse group of natural compounds and biogenetically derived from active isoprene unit. Biosynthesized by the condensation of two farnesyl diphosphate (FPP) units followed
via reduction (Dewar et al., 1987). Triterpenes consist of the C
formula C
. Triterpenes represent secondary metabolites, especially pentacyclic ones and extensively
30H48
class of isoprenoids and the molecular
30
dispersed in the plant kingdom and originate in leaves, stem bark, fruits and roots (Jäger et al., 2009).
Oleanane, ursane, taraxerane, taraxastane, lupane, and tetracyclic-dammarane and cucurbitan are the
example of triterpene (Sticher, 2010).
Tetraterpene
Tetraterpenes are made up of two (C20) geranylgeranyl disphosphates in a head-to head condensation
reaction. Tetraterpene compounds made up of eight isoprene unit and belong to the class of carotenoids
and have a molecular formula C
(Davis et al., 2000). Caratenoids includes Lycopene, β-carotene, and
40H64
lutein are the example of tetraterpenoids and have a good antioxidant property (Dall’Osto et al., 2012).
Phenylpropanoids
The most frequently investigated metabolic route is phenylpropanoid pathway, among secondary metabolites. The phenylpropanoids are synthesized by plants from the amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine
and they are diverse family of organic compounds (Barros et al., 2016). In EOs aromatic compounds
are present and usually derived from phenylpropane, and they are in lower concentration than terpenes.
Various examples of Phenylpropanoid EOs such as, aniseed from Pimpinella anisum, star anise from Il-
licium verum, and fennel from Foeniculum vulgare, all with trans-anethol; cinnamon from Cinnamomum
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Essential Oils and Their Biological Applications
Table 1. List of various types of terpenoids and characteristic features
Terpenoids
Hemiterpenes 1 (C5) C5H
Monoterpene 2 (C10) C10H
Sesqueterpene 3 (C15) C
Diterpene 4 (C20) C20H
Triterpene 6 (C30) C
Tetraterpene 8 (C40) C
Isoprene
unit
Carbon
atoms
Molecular
formula
8
16
15H24
32
30H48
40H64
Examples of different terpenoids Reference(s)
Eucalyptol, citronellol, limonene,
humulen, Forskolin etc.
geraniol, terpineol, limonene,
myrcene etc.
α-bisabolene, β-caryophyllene etc Swamy et al., (2015)
Retinol, retinal, phytol etc.
oleanane, ursane, taraxerane,
taraxastane, lupine etc.
Lycopene, β-carotene, lutein etc Dall’Osto et al., (2012)
Semih et al., (2021)
Breitmaier, (2006)
Breitmaier, (2006); Davis et
al., (2000)
Sticher, (2010)
verum with trans-cinnamic aldehyde; and Eugenol from Eugenia caryophyllus (Bakkali et al., 2008;
Sell, 2010; Chamorro et al., 2012).
Derivatives of terpenes
Alcohol
Alcohols are most common EOs and are the very useful molecules in aromatherapy. There are two types
of alcohol they gives a better biological activity. Terpene alcohols stimulate the immune system, diuretic
and anti-bacterial activity. Linalol extracted from rosewood and lavender, Citronellol extracted from
rose, lemon, eucalyptus and geranium. Geraniol may be extracted in geranium and palmarosa, Farnesol
found from chamommile. Other terpene alcohols include borneol, menthol, nerol, terpineol, vetiverol,
benzyl alcohol, and cedrol are the examples of terpene alcohols. Sesquiterpene Alcohols are used as
anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, anti-mycotic, and ulcer-protective property. A strongest sesquiterpene
alcohol is Bisabolol and found in chamomile oils (Tisserand & Balacs, 1995).
Ester
The compound resulting from the reaction of an alcohol with an acid is called esterification and esters
are found in a large number of EOs. Esters are generally non-toxic. Esters have an intensely fruity
aroma. Linalyl acetate found from bergamot, Clary sage, and lavender and Geraniol acetate found in
sweet marjoram. Bornyl acetate, eugenol acetate, and lavendulyl acetate are other esters. They have
anti-inflammatory, anti-spasmodic, anti-fungal, calming (for physical body and nervous system) and
relaxing property (Caddy, 1997).
Aldehyde
The aldehyde group (C-H-O) is highly reactive. When applied topically (citral being one example) they
can be quite irritating and when inhaled may have a profound calming effect. Aldehydes elements have
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399
Essential Oils and Their Biological Applications
also been found in lavender and myrrh. Citral and Citronellal is also very common and present in the
oils of melissa, lemongrass, lemon, mandarin, lemon-scented eucalyptus, and citronella. benzaldehyde,
cinnamic aldehyde, cuminic aldehyde, and perillaldehyde other aldehydes. Sedative effect on the central
nervous system is common properties of aldehydes, antimicrobial, and antiinflammatory (Lawless, 1995).
Ketone
Sometimes constituents of ketons are mucolytic and neuro toxic. Ketones also excite cell regeneration,
support the formation of tissue, and liquefy mucous. Ketone oils are useful in different conditions such
as dry asthma, colds, flu and dry cough. Jasmone is present in jasmine and fenchone is present in fennel
both are non-toxic in nature. Camphor, carvone, menthone, methyl nonyl ketone, and pinacamphone are
other ketones (Price & Price, 2012).
Phenols
Phenols are chemically active with a distinct Fragrance. Phenols have good antiseptic, anti-bacterial,
and antimicrobial property. They have also antioxidant property due to high contain of oxygenating
molecules. Eugenol is found from clove and cinnamon oil, Thymol may be present in thyme. Carvacrol
is present in oregano and savory. Methyl eugenol, methyl chavicol anethole, safrole, myristicin, and apiol
are other phnelos (Clarke, 2008).
METHODS OF EXTRACTION OF ESSENTIAL OILS
EOs are valuable plant secondary metabolic products, generally composed of various volatile principles
with aromatic characteristics (Brunteon, 1995). In oil glands, the EO droplets being stored or cavity
which can be detached via either accelerate diffusion over the cell wall or through cell wall crushing.
The extraction procedures for EO depend on the portion of the plant where the oil is to be extracted. The
stability of the EO to heat and susceptibility of the oil constituents to change will also affect extraction
method of oil. Various techniques used for the extraction of Essential oils are discuss below:
Conventional Extraction Methods
Hydrodistillation
Hydrodistillation is the oldest and easy method which is used for the extraction of EOs from plant
materials. This method begins with immersion of the plant material into H
mixture was boiled. The plant material from which oil is to be extracted and boiling water is in direct
contact with each other (Rangari, 2017). The assembly for hydrodistillation includes a source of heat,
vessel which contains water and plant material, a condenser which converts vapors produced into liquid,
and a decanter. Decanter is used to collect the condensate and for separation of EO from water. In this
technique extract plant materials is used to observe especially like wood or flower and the extractions
which involve plant material whose boiling point is high. This method protects EOs to be extracted to a
O in the container and the
2
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Essential Oils and Their Biological Applications
certain extent without presence overheated because the oils are surrounded by water (El Asbahani et al.,
2009). Its main disadvantage is that complete isolation of oil is not possible (Rangari, 2017).
Steam Distillation
Steam Distillation is very popular technique used to extract and isolate EOs from plants. 93% of percentage yield of EOs extracted by this technique and the remaining oil can be extracted by using other
methods. The method begins via heating the plant material by steam and the steam which is to be supplied is generated from steam generator. In this system packed bed of the plant is placed over the source
of steam. The steam produced is passed through the plants (Masango, 2005). The steam vaporizes the
volatile oil from the plant material which finally goes through the condensation and collection process.
The apparatus used in this method is simple. This is an economical method of extraction. Volatile oil can
be produced in large quantity with less human labor. As high pressure steam can cause decomposition
of unstable perfume components, so distillation is best started with steam of low pressure followed by
steam of higher pressure in the later stages of operation (Rangari, 2017).
Hydrodiffusion (HD)
The major difference between steam distillation and hydrodiffusion is that in steam distillation method,
steam is supplied through the bottommost and in HD method; steam is supplied from the top. So this
method is a sort of inverted steam distillation. The oil can be collected from the bottom. HD is started at
low pressure and the temperature of steam can be declined below 100°C; so this technique is subjected
only to samples that can be damaged at boiling temperature (Vian et al., 2008). Oils with higher ester
contents i.e. less thermally induced hydrolysis can be produced by this method. Microwave technology
enhanced steam diffusion method (Bousbia et al., 2009). HD method is better as comparison to steam
distillation due to its low processing time and more yield with little steam used (Al-Shalah, et al., 2020).
Solvent Extraction
The principle of this method is based on the dissolution of the components in the cells by the solvent
(Fokou et al., 2020). In this technique Solvents are use like acetone, petroleum ether, hexane, methanol,
or ethanol. The plant material can be extracted by this method and which cannot be used heat or steam
method for extraction (Tongnuanchan & Benjakul, 2014). In this process, the plant materials are mixed
with solvents and mild heating is provided to the mixture. Then the mixture is filtered and evaporation
of the solvent takes place. The filtrate contains a mixture of resin, wax, fragrance and EO. Alcohol is
added in the filtrate to solubilize EO into it and after that it will be distilled at low temperature. In this
method, the alcohol absorbs fragrance and is evaporated while the aromatic oil remains in the vessel.
This method is very complicated as compared to other methods for EOs extraction that is why it is
time-consuming and costly process (Li, et al., 2009). Solvent extraction is used for plant materials that
yield low amounts of EO, that are largely resinous, or for delicate aromatics which cannot tolerate the
pressure and distress of steam distillation. This method also produces a finer fragrance than any type
of distillation method.
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Essential Oils and Their Biological Applications
Cold Pressing Method or Expression
The oils from the citrus peels obtained by distillation or any of the extraction process produce poor
quality oil (Rangari, 2017). This method is used in the production of citrus oils. Mechanical extraction
method oil is pressed in an expeller at low temperatures and pressure. The oil extracted by this process
is 100% pure. This method is also known as scarification method (Arnould et al., 1981). The outer most
layers of the plants which consist of oil are removed. Then it is forced to squash out the material from
the pulp and EO is released from the pouches. This type of EOs separated by centrifugation method and
the released EO comes up on the surface of the material.
Enfleurage
It is classical technique of essential aroma extraction in which EOs components are solubilized on wax
or fat. Fat have the property of absorption and, when fragrant flowers are brought in contact with fat, it
absorbs the perfume released by the flowers (Fokou et al., 2020). In this process, the fat is taken on the
plates which are made up of glass and is warmed to about 50ºC. The fat surface is covered with the petals
and kept as it is for many days until the fat is saturated with the EOs. The petals are removed from the
fat and then the digestion of fat takes place with ethanol. The ethanol dissolves the oil present in the fat.
Sometimes, the little amount of fat is also dissolved ethanol; it is separated by cooling to about 20ºC.
The mixture of alcohol and EOs is distilled under reduced pressure to remove the solvent (Ansari, 2016).
Non-conventional or Modern Extraction Methods
There are many disadvantages of conventional methods of extraction of volatile oils so further modification of extraction techniques has been made. Conventional methods involve high temperature which
affects the quality of EOs, and also time taken by process is very large. Many components of volatile
oil losses and degraded due to this (Usai, et al., 2011; Hanaa et al., 2012).
The new extraction techniques overcome these disadvantages. Decline the extraction time, energy
consumption, solvent used and carbon dioxide discharge are the main features of modern methods (El
Asbahani et al., 2019).
Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE)
SFE is most extensively used method for extracting EOs. It provides quick extraction at moderate temperatures, no need of clean-up steps and organic solvents. This process requires supercritical fluid. The
supercritical fluid state depends upon two parameters i.e. fluid’s critical pressure and critical temperature
(El Asbahani et al., 2019). Carbon dioxide (CO
cal point. It is non-explosive, non-toxic, readily available, easily eliminated from extracted products and
obtainable in pure form and at low cost (Guan, 2007; Ghannadi et al., 2012; Shamspur et al., 2012). The
principle includes the use and recycle of fluid in repetitive steps of compression and decompression. The
supercritical state of CO
can be attained by extremely compressing and heating this fluid. The fluid is
2
then permits through the plant material to load volatile matter or extract. Then decompression step takes
place where the mixture of CO
to isolate the extracts or oil from the CO
and plant extracts or oil are separated, the fluid is slowly decompressed
2
. The CO2 is free from second separator and reused into storage
2
) is an ideal supercritical solvent as it easily reach criti-
2
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Essential Oils and Their Biological Applications
tank, and the final product is free from solvent residue because CO2 easily becomes gas under normal
atmospheric pressure and temperature (Fornari et al. 2012).
Subcritical Extraction Liquid
Numerous researchers reported the use of water at its subcritical state and this is a good alternative of
extraction of EOs. When the liquid reaches at the pressure more than the critical pressure and lesser than
the critical temperature or vice-versa, then it is a subcritical stage of a liquid. The fluids such as water
and CO
can be used to extract EOs in this method. The properties of subcritical state of fluid are low
2
viscosity, low density and improved diffusivity between gas and liquids. The EO isolation is fast in this
method which is conducted at a low temperature (Özel et al., 2006). The required duration of extraction is only 15 minutes. Essential oils with higher amount of oxygenated components and with without
terpenes can be obtained which have more valuable properties (Tongnuanchan & Benjakul, 2014).
Microwave-Assisted Hydrodistillation (MAHD)
Advancement of hydrodistillation technique is MAHD which uses a microwave oven for the extraction
of the plant’s active constituents (Golmakani et al., 2008). Extraction techniques which are used conven-
tionally are time and solvent consuming and also unsafe thermally (Mandal et al., 2007). This method
have shown reduction in both the time of extraction and the solvent required, it minimize the impact on
environment as it emits less CO
suming very less energy as compared to conventional extraction methods (Farhat et al., 2009). MAHD
is used as a heating principle and based upon its direct impact with polar solvents and is controlled by
two phenomenon’s i.e. ionic conduction and dipole rotation, which occurs simultaneously in maximum
cases (Letellier et al., 1999).
in the atmosphere (Lucchesi et al., 2004; Ferhat et al., 2006) and con-
2
Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction (UAE)
UAE facilitates the extraction of components like oils, proteins, polysaccharides, etc. (Vilkhu et al., 2008).
The phenomena of cavitation, that is, production and breakdown of microscopic bubbles are effects of
ultrasound. Bubbles collapse violently when its size increases. Induction of mechanical forces takes place
as a result of this violent collapse leading to damage of membrane of the cell (Cameron et al., 2009),
and results in high yield and increased speed of extraction. Ultrasound, no doubt is an expensive in cost
but it is an alternative to conventional and latest commercial oil production processes too.
BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS OF ESSENTIAL OILS
EOs has been well recognized to possess various different biological activities in vitro and in vivo. EOs
are one of the most important phytoconstituents which exhibit marked biological effects and are well
known for their antimicrobial, antiseptic antifungal and as preservative material since the ancient times.
Several EOs extracted from plants developing in different environment often affect the compounds of
the EOs within the same botanical species. The biological activity of EO depends on various factors
such as time of session of harvesting, method of extraction, and their conservation (Bakkali et al., 2008).
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Essential Oils and Their Biological Applications
Therefore, there is a strong connection is between, chemical compositions of medicinal plants and environmental parameters which directly affect the biological effect of volatile oil. Therapeutic potential of
EO can be utilized in management of several disorders. Usually stored in specialized cells or glands and
in cavity within specific areas of the plant, such as rhizome, stems, bark, leaves, wood, fruit, and seeds,
(Miguel, 2010). Essential oils can go in the body by diverse ways, such as inhaling, via skin absorption
and by taking through oral route.
Various EOs produce from plants and useful for several therapeutic property, such as analgesic (peppermint and clove); antifungal (lemongrass); antibiotic (tea tree and lavender oil); anti-inflammatory
(lavender and clove); sedative (German chamomile and valerian); antiseptic (lemon grass oil, lavender);
antispasmodic (coriander, fennel, dill); aphrodisiac (garlic, black pepper, jasmine, sandalwood); carminative (peppermint, fennel); diuretic (grapefruit and lemon); euphoric (Roman chamomile, jasmine);
expectorant (eucalyptus, fennel) laxative (peppermint, black pepper, fennel, orange,); rubefacient (lemongrass, rosemary, peppermint and black pepper) antidiarrheal (cinnamon, basil, ginger, black pepper);
vasodilator (black pepper and eucalyptus); bioenhancer (black paper) spasmolytic (carway, coriander);
immunomodulatory (holy basil, ginger, sage, clove) psychotropic (Acorus, parsley); and anticancer (sage)
(Hajhashemi et al., 2002; Abdollahi et al., 2003; Price & Price, 2007; Carrasco et al., 2009).
The recent advance of using natural compositions in pharmaceutical and food preservation has led to
an increasing attention in use of essential oil. The activities of EOs are produced or imparted by single
compounds or may be due to synergistic effect of essential oil components. The main function of EO
in plant is to defend plant from various predator pathogen and microbes (Bassolé & Juliani, 2012; Lang
& Buchbauer, 2012).
Over thousands of years continuously essential oils is use as a medicinal agent due to a wide range
of biological, antimicrobial, and other valuable effects. The history of use of essential oil is as ancient
as human civilization.
Usually in order to succeed a significant biological, antimicrobial and/or antioxidant effect, a comparatively high concentration of essential oil necessary (Gutierrez et al., 2008). Thus, the essential oil
of plants like thyme, clove, garlic, rosemary, cinnamon, or their components, can be used single or
in combination with other, to recover the shelf life of pharmaceutical preparation and food products.
Essential oils may produce toxic effect at high dose. The toxicity of essential oils can be estimated by
animal cells line or in vivo animal models. The excess ingestion of essential oil by human has shown
common toxic effects like nausea, vomiting, and abdominal cramps whereas dermal exposure may cause
rashes, redness, and burning sensation (Prashar et al., 2004; Suschke et al., 2007). So toxicity degree
should be first examined when they are employed for purpose of therapeutic, especially in the fields of
cosmetics, flavors and food.
ANTIMICROBIAL FUMES
EO fumes are recognized for their antimicrobial potential since the B.C (4th century) though; the potential of these EO fumes is explored too late. Recently, the use of various EO like bergamot oil, lavender
oil and eucalyptus oil show wide range of antimicrobial effects against various bacteria and fungus.
Fumes of EO work as strong antimicrobials, due to potent antimicrobial agent in field of food science
and clinical areas. The main drawback of EOs is that they show their remarkable antimicrobial potential
when tested in a microbial culture but in food organizations, so high concentrations are essential to carry
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Essential Oils and Their Biological Applications
about the same effect. A recent study confirms that antimicrobial vapor phase of EO are more effective
as comparison to liquid phases (Inouye et al., 2003). The various constituents of EOs determine their
relative volatilities and appearances of their vapor (Burt, 2004). The vapor phase being more effective
due to lipophilic molecules in the aqueous phase linked to form micelles and therefore suppress that
attachment of the EOs to the organism, whereas the vapor phase allows the molecule attach freely this
is the reasons that to use EO as fumes (Inouye et al., 2003). Inhalation of EO in the form of fumes was
taken in ancient times. Vapor inhalation in smoke form collected from bay leaves produced visions that
came to the oracle at Delphi (Thompson, 2003). In 4th century B.C. (During ancient times) when they
were used as antidotes poisoning and breathe in vapor form to easiness the throat. Ancient Egyptians
also used EO vapors as perfumery, medicine and spiritual life (Edris, 2007). In in vitro screening mainly
two methods are used and also assess antimicrobial potential of EOs fumes. Diffusion method is the first
method was adapted, where zone of inhibition measured to check antimicrobial potential. In the second
method, the EOs fumes and several micro-organisms are sited distinctly into an airtight environment
and tested for sensitivity to any one EO fumes at one time. The main demerit of this method is that it
not a very cost-effective method due to need of large quantity of EO. However, this method is efficient
in the assessing of inhibitory effects of EO fumes on surfaces and in air (Doran et al., 2009; Fisher &
Phillips, 2009; Laird et al., 2012). Various home used spices and drugs such as cinnamon, clove, ginger, EO fumes have been already showed promising antimicrobial effect against Aspergillus flavus and
Penicillium islandicum (Lopez et al., 2005). EOs fumes of thyme, nutmeg and sage showed significant
antimicrobial effect against Aspergillus sp. and Penicillium sp. in vitro (Tullio et al. 2007). Interestingly,
M. piperita fumes totally inhibit development of a wide variety of fungi and yeasts with Aspergillus sp.
and Penicillium sp. by disc diffusion and time-kill examines. EO of E. globulus (Tyagi & Malik, 2011),
Lemongrass fumes (Tyagi & Malik 2010) thyme, fennel and lavender (Soylu et al., 2006). The use of
EO fumes in food material is very common, and used frequently due to their antimicrobial nature to
successfully control food pathogens and food spoilage organisms, such as bacterial and fungal species.
One of the main advantages of using EO in vapor phase is that, the components of EO do not distress
the organoleptic properties of the food material as EO in liquid form did. Various EO such as, citrus oil,
eucalyptus oil thyme oil, oregano oil, cinnamon oil fumes (Paparella et al., 2008) are applied to control
microbial contamination in food material. So there are various evidence that EO in vapor phase are effective antimicrobial as when used in liquid form. The main advantage of using EO fume is use of lower
concentrations, with more or same antimicrobial activity, and there use in a range of environments, there
is not a specific classification that particular EOs fume is effective against particular microorganism. So
the spectrum of movement of each EO fumes wants to be recognized by experimentally.
CONCLUSION
Essential oils are naturally occurring compounds also known as volatile oil. In conventional method,
hydrodistillation is the most suitable, easy to carry out procedure for isolation of volatile oil from all parts
of the plants as comparison to other methods but now day’s modern techniques are available for extrac-
tion of volatile oils due to many disadvantages of conventional method. Conventional methods involves
high temperature which affects the quality of EOs, and also time taken by process is very large. Many
components of volatile oil losses and degraded due to this. Essential oils possess various medicinal and
pharmacological activities due to its important constituents and also used in the perfume and cosmetic
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Essential Oils and Their Biological Applications
industries. EO can be used as antimicrobial, antiseptic, antifungal, anticancer and wound healing. EO
fumes are recognized for their antimicrobial potential since B.C. Fumes of EO work as strong antimicrobials, due to potent antimicrobial agent in field of food science and clinical areas. EOs fumes of thyme,
nutmeg and sage showed significant antimicrobial effect against Aspergillus sp. and Penicillium sp. The
essential oils market rapidly growing day by day in the whole world due to its good results.
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