Добавил:
ivanov666
Опубликованный материал нарушает ваши авторские права? Сообщите нам.
Вуз:
Предмет:
Файл:Fundamentals of Geography. Study guide
.pdf
1
MINISTRY OF SCIENCE AND HIGHER EDUCATION
OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
Federal State Autonomous Educational
Institution of Higher Education
"SOUTHERN FEDERAL UNIVERSITY"
A. E. Ovsepyan
N. N. Barannikova
A. N. Kuznetsov
Fundamentals of Geography
Study guide
Rostov-on-Don – Taganrog
Southern Federal University Press
2022
2
UDC 911(075.8)
It was published according to the decision of the Department of Physical
Geography, Ecology and Nature Protection of the Institute of Earth Sciences
of Southern Federal University (Record No. 6 of May 20, 2022)
Reviewers:
Сity Methodist of Geography of the Municipal Autonomous Institution
"Information and Methodological Center of Education" of Rostov-on-Don,
Candidate of Sociological Sciences, E. A. Chernyavskaya;
Professor of the Department of Physical Geography, Ecology and Nature
Protection of the Institute of Earth Sciences of Southern Federal University,
Doctor of Geographical Sciences, V. T. Bogucharskov
Fundamentals of Geography : study guide / A. E. Ovsepyan, N. N. Barannikova, A. N. Kuznetsov ; Southern Federal University. – Rostov-on-Don ;
Taganrog : Southern Federal University Press, 2022. – 133 p.
ISBN 978-5-9275-4118-8
This study guide contains information included in the curriculum of the geography course taught to foreign students, who would like to be enrolled in Natural
sciences and study at the preparatory department of Southern Federal University.
The topics cover many issues such as geography as a science, the place of Earth
in the Universe, the structure of the planet, the unique properties, relationships and
features of its shells, evolution and modern understanding of the purpose of the
discipline of regional studies, as well as some issues of the geography of Russia
and the consequences of human impact on the geographical shell. The study guide
contains exercises, several check tests and individual tasks. It is for students who
are going to choose undergraduate and graduate programs to study Earth Sciences,
Life Sciences and some other fields related to Earth. This edition has been prepared for English-speaking entrants, and is an updated and modified translation of
the authors' study guide, published earlier.
UDC 911(075.8)
ISBN 978-5-9275-4118-8
© Southern Federal University, 2022
© Ovsepyan А. E., Barannikova N. N.,
Kuznetsov A. N., 2022
3
CONTENT
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 5
TOPIC 1. Geography as a science.
Its emergence, development and links with other sciences ................... 7
TOPIC 2. Earth in the Universe .......................................................................... 20
TOPIC 3. The Earth's crust and the surface of Earth .......................................... 25
TOPIC 4. The Atmosphere of Earth.
Structure and composition of the troposphere.
The climate of Earth ............................................................................. 28
TOPIC 5. Hydrosphere. The water balance of Earth. World Ocean ................... 37
TOPIC 6. The Earth's Biosphere ......................................................................... 47
TOPIC 7. Country studies as a science ............................................................... 53
TOPIC 8. The Russian Federation ...................................................................... 65
TOPIC 9. Human impact on the biosphere ......................................................... 68
Task 1. The range of the visible horizon ........................................................ 86
Task 2. Climates of the globe ......................................................................... 86
Task 3. Natural areas of the world ................................................................. 87
Task 4. Hypsometric profile of the ocean floor ............................................. 87
Task 5. Working with electronic maps ........................................................... 89
Task 6. Characteristics of a Russian city with population
more than 1 million people ................................................................ 91
Task 7. Global problems of humanity .......................................................... 102
Task 8. Reading texts ................................................................................... 102
4
1. Geographical maps
(by Danilina, Nesterova, 2004, with additions) .............................. 102
2. Location and density of the Earth's population
(according to Danilina, Nesterova, 2004, with additions)............... 103
3. Relief of Russia
(by Danilina, Nesterova, 2004, with additions) .............................. 104
4. Natural zones of Russia
(according to Danilina, Nesterova, 2004, with additions)............... 104
5. The forest industry of Russia
(according to Danilina, Nesterova, 2004, with additions)............... 105
6. Seas, lakes, rivers of Russia
(according to Danilin, Nesterov, 2004, with additions) .................. 106
7. Minerals of Russia
(according to Danilina, Nesterova, 2004, with additions)............... 106
8. Resources of the Seas of Russia
(according to Danilina, Nesterova, 2004, with additions)............... 107
9. Lake Baikal
(by Danilina, Nesterova, 2004, with additions) .............................. 108
10. Distribution of the population of Russia
(according to Danilina, Nesterova, 2004, with additions)............... 109
11. Non-traditional energy sources
(according to Danilina, Nesterova, 2004, with additions)............... 109
CONCLUSION ................................................................................................ 111
GLOSSARY ...................................................................................................... 112
LIST OF RECOMMENDED LITERATURE .............................................. 129
5
I N TR OD U C T I ON
This study guide entitled “Fundamentals of Geography” was created in order
to provide students with educational materials, who take courses of the preparatory
department of Southern Federal University before they start the educational programs of higher education in Natural sciences.
The authors wrote this book due to the annual increasing number of overseas
students arriving from different countries to study at Southern Federal University.
Also, the authors have collected a large amount of methodological and theoretical
material.
At the end of the course, while studying geography taught at the preparatory
department of Southern Federal University, students will acquire such knowledge
and skills as:
− understanding geography as a science, its place in the system of sciences,
history, research methods, structure and links with other sciences;
− the ability to form ideas about the "geographical shell" as a single natural
planetary system, to understand the basic regularities of its structure, development,
territorial differentiation;
− understanding the structure of the Universe, location of planet Earth in the
Universe;
− understanding the general planetary properties of Earth;
− being aware of how considerable the impact of society on the geographical
shell is;
− understanding country studies as a geographical discipline that includes
a comprehensive study of countries, systematizing and generalizing heterogeneous
data on their nature, population, economy, culture and social organization. As part
of the training, students primarily study the Russian Federation, the bordering
states, as well as the countries that most actively cooperate with the Russian Federation in the field of education and science;
− ability to present and critically analyze basic information of geography, to
use knowledge obtained during the course;
− mastering the methods of modern geography, and working with geograph-
ical maps of various contents, including electronic, being able to get other sources
of geographical information;
Introduction
6
− ability to characterize various natural components, to monitor processes oc-
curring in them and identify relations;
− being able to make up the characteristics of particular countries, analyze
statistical data, evaluate their natural resources, population, economic sectors;
ability to formulate the main key points of geographical science; to acquire the
skills of mapping, routes, sightseeing tours in chosen regions; to master techniques
of constructing landscape profiles of the terrain.
The content of this study guide is relevant to the program of "Geography" discipline, which has been created according to the requirements for the development
of general education programs and prepares foreign citizens and stateless persons
to master skills required by professional educational programs in Russian. These
programs have been offered and realized by the authors at the preparatory department of Southern Federal University since 2015.
The study guide includes educational, theoretical, and didactic material
(e.g. control questions, examples, tests, educational tasks designed to help to enhance knowledge of the discipline, as well as to do self-control of students), reference and bibliographic information, as well as a glossary of basic terms.
7
T O PI C 1
Ge o gra p hy a s a s cie n ce.
It s em e rge n c e, dev e l op m e nt a nd link s w i t h o t her sci e nce s
Geography means description of Earth (from Greek-geos + grapho), it has
been one of the important studies since the ancient times, when a man was just
beginning to explore the world, memorize and describe the place of living, to
learn the regularities of relationships which had appeared around him. Modern
geography is a system of scientific disciplines which were being developed and
considered separately.
Apart from geography geosciences (Earth sciences) include biogeography, geochemistry, geology, geophysics, environmental sciences (Fig. 1). All of these sciences study planet Earth, but each has got its own subject of study. Biogeography
studies living beings and their distribution and diversity on the planet, geology
focuses on the interior of Earth, geochemistry deals with chemical composition of
Earth and its components, geophysics is concerned with physical fields and processes, geography studies the Earth’s surface, its landscapes, inhabitants as well
as its transformation and management by human society.
Cycle
Fig. 1. The cycle of geosciences (made by the authors according to Milkov, 1990)
Geography is distinguished from other geosciences not only due to the subject
of study, but also due to its method, which is called descriptive (Milkov, 1990).
Within the cycle, geography studies the most general regularities and its conclusions which spread to subsequent subdivisions of geography.
Geochemistry
Geology
Geophysics
Geosciences (Earth sciences)
Topic 1
8
Geography can be divided into several branches such as physical geography,
human socioeconomic geography, country (regional geographical) studies, cartography, history and methodology of geography. All of the sciences focus on the
Earth’s surface, but the subject of study of every science is different. (Fig. 2)
Geography subdivisions
Fig. 2. Geography subdivisions
(made by the authors according to Milkov, 1990)
The subject of study of physical geography is geographical shell (environment) of Earth, socioeconomic (human) geography studies economy and population of Earth. Country studies are the combinations of physical and economic
geographies: it is a geographical discipline that deals with comprehensive study
of countries, systematizing and summarizing of various information about their
nature, population, economy, culture and society organization. History and methodology of geography hold a special place among geographical sciences, describing the history of development and formation of ideas, sciences, development of
methods and knowledge.
Let’s consider relationships among physico-geographical sciences (Fig.3)
Fig. 3. Physico-geographical sciences
(made by the authors according to Milkov, 1990)
Geography
Physical
geography
Socioeconomic
Country (regional geographical)
studies
Cartography
History and
methodology of
science
Physico-geographical sciences
Soil science
Landscape science
Paleogeography
Sectorial
sciences
Geography as a science. Its emergence, development and links with other sciences
9
Physico-geographical sciences embrace such sciences as physical geography,
landscape science, paleogeography and sectorial sciences. Sectorial sciences include geomorphology, climatology, hydrology, biogeography, and soil geography.
All the sciences study the same, geographical environment of Earth. The subject
of study of each listed science above is specific; it studies some specific part of
the geographical shell. Thus, soil geography studies the structure, interactions, dynamics of functioning of the soil shell as an integral system.
As a science geography has been developed since the Homo Sapiens times.
One of the most ancient books in geography that has survived is the Babylonian
map of the world, a clay tablet from Mesopotamia (Fig.4), which depicts the
map of the world known to Babylonians. It shows not only real geographical
regions and cities (Urartu, Assyria, Babylon, Susa), but also some mythological
elements.
Fig. 4. The Babylonian map of the world, late VIII–beginning VII B.C.
(Horowitz, 1988)
Topic 1
10
Here are the main stages of development of geography.
The ancient geography (IV c. B.C–IV c. A.D). The main task of geography was
descriptive, the major sources of information were land and sea travel accounts.
Aristotle, a prominent scientist should be mentioned among other scientists. (Fig. 5)
Fig. 5. Aristotle (384–322 B.C.) was an ancient Greek scientist who assumed that
Earth had a spherical shape (photo from open internet resources)
In his treatise "Meteorology" he wrote about the mix of "spheres" with each
other, the circulation of water and the formation of rivers due to surface runoff,
about changes in the Earth's surface, sea currents, earthquakes, zones of Earth. In
330 BC, he provided some evidence of the Earth’s sphericity, based on the change
in the horizon line and the position of the constellations in different latitudes, observed by sailors. Nevertheless, he was sure that Earth is stationary and was the
center of the Universe (Aristotle, 1981).
Eratosthenes (275–195 BC) made the first accurate measurement of the circumference of Earth along the meridian, 252 thousand stages, which is close to
40 thousand km. He introduced the term "geography" (Bobynin, 1904). He used
the term "latitude" and "longitude" for the first time and used 7 parallels and meridians perpendicular to them when constructing the Ecumene map.
Strabo (64/63 BC–23/24 AD) was a historian and geographer of the heyday
of the Roman Empire (I–II centuries AD), the author of the 17-volume-book
"Geography", which has almost completely survived till the present day. Descriptive geography begins with the 3d volume, the eight volumes (III–X) contain
information about Europe, six volumes describe Asia (XI–XVI), the last one
Соседние файлы в предмете [НЕСОРТИРОВАННОЕ]