Добавил:
ivanov666
Опубликованный материал нарушает ваши авторские права? Сообщите нам.
Вуз:
Предмет:
Файл:Fundamentals of Geography. Study guide
.pdf
Glossary
121
volcanic, glacial, karst, water-accumulative, Aeolian, dammed, etc. The deepest
lake in the world Baikal (1620 m deep) belongs to the tectonic type, 20 % of
the world's fresh water reserves are concentrated in it; the volume of waters is
23 thousand km3 – this is more than in the Great American Lakes (Upper, Huron, Michigan, Erie, Ontario).
LIVING MATTER – ЖИВОЕ ВЕЩЕСТВО – the aggregate and biomass
of living organisms in the biosphere. According to the latest calculations,
N. I. Bazilevich, L. E. Rodin, etc. the biomass of the living matter of the land
is 2.42 * 1012 tons (green plants account for 99.2 %); the biomass of the living
matter of the ocean is 0.0032 * 1012 tons (animals and microorganisms predominate – 93.7 %), i.e. the total biomass of the living matter of the biosphere
is 2.4232 * 1012 tons. It can be seen that the mass of living matter on the surface
of continents is 800 times greater than the biomass of the ocean.
MESOPHYTES – МЕЗОФИТЫ – plants occupying an intermediate position
between hygrophytes and xerophytes; they are moderately demanding on the
moisture content of the habitat. These include most plants of the temperate zone:
meadow grasses (wheatgrass, meadow clover, blue alfalfa, etc.), some cultivated
plants (corn, wheat, hemp, soy), almost all fruit (except grapes, almonds, pistachios), etc.
MESOSPHERE – МЕЗОСФЕРА – a layer of the atmosphere extending above
the stratosphere at altitudes up to 80 km; it is characterized by a sharp decrease in
air temperature at its upper boundary (up to -75–90 °C). Silvery clouds consisting
of ice crystals are recorded here.
MID-OCEANIC RIDGES (MOR) – СРЕДИННО-ОКЕАНИЧЕСКИЕ
ХРЕБТЫ (СОХ) – giant linearly oriented arched uplifts (up to 3000 m high)
within the bed of the World Ocean. They are characterized by increased mobility
and high seismicity with shallow occurrence of earthquake foci (hypocenters).
A narrow rift zone is observed in the axial part of the underwater ridges. MORs
have a total length of more than 60,000 km in the ocean, while occupying
55.3 million km2 (15.3 % of the ocean area).
OUTER PLANETS OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM – ВНЕШНИЕ ПЛАНЕТЫ
СОЛНЕЧНОЙ СИСТЕМЫ – Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. The outer
planets are also called Jupiter group planets or gas giants. Like the inner planets,
the outer planets have similar characteristics to each other. The outer planets are
so much larger than the inner ones that they make up 99 percent of the mass of
Glossary
Topic 9
122
celestial bodies orbiting the Sun. Although the outer planets are mostly made up
of gas, they have other components as well. Somewhere in the center is what scientists call a rocky core, although in fact it consists of liquid heavy metals. While
the inner planets have few or no moons, the outer planets have dozens. The inner
and outer planets are separated by an asteroid belt.
OZONE LAYER – ОЗОНОВЫЙ СЛОЙ – (ozone shield, ozonosphere) –
a layer of the atmosphere (stratosphere) at an altitude of 10 to 50 km with a maximum concentration of ozone at an altitude of 20–25 km. Ozone is formed from
oxygen during electrical discharges (during thunderstorms) and under the influence of ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. The ozone layer delays the penetration
of the harshest ultraviolet radiation to the earth's surface, which is harmful to all
living things on our planet.
PALEOGEOGRAPHY – ПАЛЕОГЕОГРАФИЯ – a science that studies the
history of the development of the Earth's surface in past geological epochs; reconstructs ancient landscapes, paleoclimates, and also studies the origin and evolution
of individual components of the geographical envelope of the Earth (relief, atmosphere, hydrosphere, soils, vegetation, etc.). Paleogeography uses modern research
methods (spore-pollen, diatom, isotope, radiocarbon, etc.). More details can be
found in the textbook of V. A. Vronsky, G. V. Voitkevich "Fundamentals of paleogeography" (1997).
PLANKTON – ПЛАНКТОН – a set of plants (phytoplankton), animals (zooplankton) and bacteria (bacterioplankton) passively floating and transported by sea
currents in the water column, completely or almost incapable of independent
movement over considerable distances. Phytoplankton is mainly microscopic unicellular algae (diatoms, peridinium, etc.); zooplankton is distinguished by an even
greater variety of species (unicellular, crustaceans, jellyfish, worms, etc.).
PODZOLIC SOILS – ПОДЗОЛИСТЫЕ ПОЧВЫ – soils which are formed
in a moderately humid climate under coniferous forests of Eurasia and North
America. They express all three horizons (humus-accumulative, eluvial and illuvial). The presence of clearly fixed horizons indicates significant moistening and
uniform washing mode under the canopy of coniferous forests of the taiga zone.
The humus content in these soils is 5–6 %.
POLAR ASYMMETRY OF THE EARTH – ПОЛЯРНАЯ АСИММЕТРИЯ
ЗЕМЛИ – the difference between the northern and southern hemispheres as one
of the most important geographical patterns of the Earth (Vernadsky, 1923; Markov,
Glossary
123
1963). This dissimilarity is revealed in different geological history and structure
of the lithosphere of both hemispheres, in the nature of glaciation, the features of
the location of geographical zones, areas of plants and animals, etc. This property
is also typical for terrestrial planets and giant planets.
PRODUCERS – ПРОДУЦЕНТЫ (from lat. – producing, creating) – autotrophic organisms that produce complex organic substances from simple inorganic
compounds. These are mainly green plants that make up the first trophic level in
the ecosystem.
PSAMMOPHYTES – ПСАММОФИТЫ (from Greek. – sand and ...phites) –
plants growing on moving sands (mainly deserts). When covered with sand, exposing the root system, they are able to give powerful adventitious roots (saxaul,
sandy acacia, celine, sandy sedge, etc.). The leaves of psammophytes are hard,
narrow, and in many species are almost absent.
RED SOILS – КРАСНОЗЕМЫ – a type of soil formed under humid subtrop-
ical forests. They are most widely represented in the southeastern United States,
in Southeast Asia, in the foothills of Western Transcaucasia. The main soil-forming rock is the alluvial weathering crust, so they are characterized by a high content
of iron, aluminum, manganese, and silica. The total area occupied by them in the
world is 19 % of the land (humus content is up to 6 %).
SALINE SOILS – ЗАСОЛЕННЫЕ ПОЧВЫ – soils with a high content (over
1 %) of easily soluble salts (sodium carbonates, chlorides, sulfates, etc.). These
soils are most common in arid areas (dry steppes, semi-deserts, deserts). Saline
soils include black alkali and salt marshes. On saline soils, vegetation is mainly
represented by halophytes (from the families of haze, compound-flowered, double-leafed, etc.).
SALINITY – СОЛЕНОСТЬ – the amount of solids in grams dissolved in 1 kg
of seawater. It is measured in "%" ("ppm") or PSU units (Practical Salinity Units)
of the Practical Salinity Scale.
SAVANNAS – САВАННЫ – a tropical biome dominated by herbaceous vegetation with the participation of trees (or shrubs) and with a clear change of dry
and wet periods. They are widely distributed in Africa, in South America (in Venezuela – llanos, in Brazil – campos) and in the north-west of Australia. In different
types of savannas, precipitation ranges from 500 to 1500 mm per year. The main
background of the landscape is created by hard-leaved grasses, with which rarely
standing trees with a long root system coexist (in African acacia – up to 68 m).
Glossary
Topic 9
124
Often in the African savannas there are powerful deciduous trees – baobabs (up to
5000 years old), and in the savannas of Australia – a bottle tree. The fauna of the
savannah is rich and diverse. Ungulates, rhinoceroses, giraffes, elephants, zebras,
buffaloes, lions, leopards, cheetahs, etc. are represented in the savannahs of Africa
in various ways.
SOD-PODZOLIC SOILS - ДЕРНОВО-ПОДЗОЛИСТЫЕ ПОЧВЫ – a subtype of podzolic soils formed under mixed or secondary deciduous forests with
well–developed grass cover. They differ from podzolic soils by the presence of
a well-developed turf horizon of brownish-gray color with an increased humus
content.
SOIL EROSION – ЭРОЗИЯ ПОЧВ – (from Greek – I corrode) – the destruction of rocks (weathering), soil by both natural (water, wind, glacier) and
anthropogenic factors (deforestation, plowing of light soils in arid areas, excessive grazing, etc.). This is one of the most important factors of soil and land
degradation, with global irreplaceable soil losses on arable land in the world
reaching 23 billion tons.
SOLAR SYSTEM – СОЛНЕЧНАЯ СИСТЕМА – a system of celestial bodies including the Sun, major planets and their satellites, minor planets (asteroids),
many comets and meteoric matter. However, in August 2006, at the 26th General
Assembly of the International Astronomical Union (IAU), the classification of Solar System objects was changed. It was decided not to consider Pluto (1,160 km in
diameter) as a large planet (now there are 8 of them) and rank it among the newly
formed class of bodies – dwarf planets (including the asteroid Ceres – with a diameter of 1003 km). The recent classification of the Solar System is as follows:
1. Planets (or classical planets) – 8 (Earth, Mars, Venus, Jupiter, etc.); 2. Dwarf
planets; 3. Minor planets (asteroids).
SOLIFLUCTION – СОЛИФЛЮКЦИЯ (from Lat. – soil and outflow) – slow
runoff of thawing soils and loose soils. It occurs mainly in polar and high-altitude
areas, in areas of permafrost development, mainly under the influence of gravity.
This phenomenon is associated with the formation of shafts, ridges, terraces, etc.
SPECIALLY PROTECTED NATURAL TERRITORIES (SPNT) – ОСОБО
ОХРАНЯЕМЫЕ ПРИРОДНЫЕ ТЕРРИТОРИИ (ООПТ) – territories which,
according to Federal Law (1995), "are plots of land, water surface and airspace
above them, where natural complexes and objects that have special environmental,
scientific, cultural, aesthetic, recreational and recreational significance are located,
Glossary
125
which have been completely or partially from economic use and for which a special protection regime is established." According to the severity of the nature reserve regime, the following categories are distinguished: nature reserves, biosphere reserves, national and natural parks, nature reserves, reserves, natural monuments, World Heritage sites, sanitary and resort areas, etc.
STEPPES – СТЕПИ – a herbaceous type of vegetation of a xerophilic nature,
occupying significant areas in the temperate zone of the northern hemisphere
(analogous to prairies, pampas). This zone is characterized by a continental climate, an insignificant amount of precipitation (250–450 mm) and their unstable
regime, the presence of droughts, etc. The soils are mainly represented by chernozems and chestnut soils. These are treeless communities of perennial xerophytic
grasses (mainly cereal associations). Forest groupings in the steppes are found
only in the valleys of large rivers, gullies, on the sands of floodplain terraces (pine
forests). Narrow-leaved sod cereals (grasshopper, tipchak, bluegrass, fescue, etc.)
are widespread. Anthropogenic impacts (plowing of land, overgrazing of livestock, etc.) have led to significant degradation of steppe landscapes.
STRATOSPHERE – СТРАТОСФЕРА – is located above the troposphere to
a height of 50–55 km. At its upper boundary, an increase in air temperature is
recorded, which is associated with the presence of an ozone belt there.
TAIGA – ТАЙГА – a zone of boreal forests of the temperate zone of the
northern hemisphere, occupies vast areas of Eurasia and North America. Its area
is 13.4 million km2, of which 9 are in Russia. This zone is characterized by
a relatively short frost-free period, cold winter with stable snow cover, significant
annual precipitation (300–800 mm), the presence of permafrost, etc. The dominant
type of soils is podzolic and sod-podzolic (in the southern taiga). The species composition of woody vegetation is relatively small: Siberian spruce, common and
Siberian pine, European and Siberian larch, fir, cedar, etc. The most common species in forests is larch (Siberian, Daurian, Sukacheva), occupying 269 million hectares (38 % of the forested area), and its main massifs are distributed in Eastern
Siberia.
TIERING OF COMMUNITIES – ЯРУСНОСТЬ СООБЩЕСТВ – the vertical stratification of natural communities into tiers, which is due to the needs of
organisms in sunlight, water and food. There are tiers: aboveground (placement
of plants at different heights above the soil surface) and underground (distribution of root systems at different depths in the soil). The tiering of communities is
Glossary
Topic 9
126
especially fully represented in humid tropical forests, in broad-leaved forests of
the temperate zone, and it is also found in grassy communities of steppes, savannas, etc.
TRADE WINDS – ПАССАТЫ – steady winds in tropical latitudes, blowing
from the subtropical zone of high pressure (30⁰ s. s. and s.s.) in the direction of
the equator (low pressure). North-easterly winds prevail in the northern hemisphere, and south–easterly winds prevail in the southern hemisphere. The wind
speed is 5–6 m/s. Trade winds are the main cause of the occurrence of trade winds
in the World Ocean.
TROPICAL MOIST FORESTS – ТРОПИЧЕСКИЕ ВЛАЖНЫЕ ЛЕСА –
(gilea according to A. Humboldt) - the richest terrestrial ecosystem in terms of
species diversity and biomass. These humid tropical evergreen forests occupy
mainly the Amazon River basin and the Congo, the Indochina peninsula, the
Indo-Malay region, etc. They grow in optimal conditions of temperature and humidity; more than 2000-3000 mm of precipitation falls per year, providing high
productivity of vegetation (biomass reaches 10,000 kg/ha and more). More than
50,000 plant species have been recorded there. These phytocenoses are characterized by: gigantism of forms, multi-tiered structure, abundance of epiphytes,
many valuable plant species (chocolate tree, blue sandalwood, mahogany, sour
cream tree, etc.).
TROPOSPHERE – ТРОПОСФЕРА – the lower part of the atmosphere, in
which more than 80 % of the mass of the entire atmosphere is concentrated. Its
height is determined by the intensity of vertical (ascending and descending) air
flows caused by the heating of the Earth's surface. Therefore, the troposphere at
the equator (low pressure zone – with ascending air flows) extends to a height of
16–18 km, in temperate latitudes – up to 10–11 km, and at the poles (high pressure
zones – with descending air flows) – up to 6–8 km. There was a regular decrease
in air temperature with altitude (on average by 0.6 °C for every 100 m).
TSUNAMI – ЦУНАМИ (from Japan. – sea waves) – giant waves that occur
on the surface of the ocean as a result of mainly strong underwater earthquakes.
The speed of tsunami propagation reaches 800 km / h, and the wave height at the
coasts reaches 15–30 m. this is one of the natural disasters that cause environmental disasters. So, in December 2004, as a result of a catastrophic tsunami (the epicenter of an earthquake in the ocean near Sumatra Island), more than 300 thousand
people died on the coasts and islands of the Indian Ocean.
Glossary
127
TUNDRA – ТУНДРА – a zonal type of vegetation occupying the northern
outskirts of Eurasia and North America. It is characterized by low air temperatures,
a short growing season, permafrost, a small amount of precipitation (200–400 mm),
the predominance of gley-marsh soils. The flora has only 250–500 species. The
vegetation includes mainly mosses, lichens, grasses with the participation of lowgrowing shrubs. Part of vegetation is a few herbaceous plants (sedges, polar poppies,
dandelions), shrubs (blueberries, lingonberries, cloudberries, phyllodots, fluff) alternate with dwarf birch, polar willow, cedar stlannik. If one moves from north to
south subzones can be classified into: Arctic, moss-lichen and shrub (predominate
in North America). Lemmings, voles, hares, arctic fox, reindeer, polar owls are
only part of fauna.
UNDERWATER MARGIN OF THE CONTINENTS – ПОДВОДНАЯ ОКРАИНА МАТЕРИКОВ – a part of the bottom of the World Ocean, which is an underwater continuation of the continents. It consists of a shelf, a continental slope
and a continental foot; moreover, it lies up to 3000 m deep. Its total area in the
ocean is approximately 81.5 million km2 (22.6 % of the ocean area).
WARM AND COLD SEA CURRENTS – ТЕПЛЫЕ И ХОЛОДНЫЕ МОРСКИЕ ТЕЧЕНИЯ – currents whose water temperature is respectively higher or
lower than the temperature of the surrounding waters. Warm currents are directed from low latitudes to high ones (Gulf Stream, Kuroshio), cold ones –
from high to low (Labrador, Kuril, Peruvian, etc.). The climatic role of sea currents is significant. Thus, the Gulf Stream and the North Atlantic currents bring
up to 80–100 kcal of heat per year to the North Atlantic for every 1 cm2, and off
the coast of California, washed by a cold current, the ocean loses up to 60 kcal
per 1 cm2 annually.
WOLLY–LEAVED EVERGREEN FORESTS – ЖЕСТКОЛИСТНЫЕ ВЕЧНОЗЕЛЕНЫЕ ЛЕСА – a type of forest ecosystems characterized by a xeromorphic structure (stiff leaves, twig–shaped stems) and common on the coasts of the
Mediterranean Sea, on the southern coast of Crimea, and in the southern hemisphere - in southwestern Australia and Africa. 500-1000 mm of precipitation falls
here per year, while their maximum falls in winter, and very dry conditions are
established in summer. Brown and peculiar red-colored soils (such as terra rossa)
are typical. Most plants of the zone are typical xerophytes, have stiff leaves,
often too narrow and resemble needles (cypress, erica, juniper). A significant
number of aromatic plant species can be seen here (myrtle, frankincense, chistets,
Glossary
Topic 9
128
Dubrovnik, etc.). The flora of the Mediterranean has more than 10,000 species,
while the number of endemics can reach 40–50%.
XEROPHYTES – КСЕРОФИТЫ – plants adapted to life in habitats with insufficient moisture (dry steppes, semi–deserts, deserts). They are characterized by:
narrow leaves, thick cuticle, reduction of leaves, pubescence, etc., contributing to
a decrease in transpiration. They are represented by herbaceous plants and shrubs
from the families (haze, compound, cruciferous, legume, lily, double-leaved, etc.).
YELLOW SOILS – ЖЕЛТОЗЕМЫ – soils of humid subtropical forests,
formed on the products of weathering of rocks; they are similar to red soils, poor
in humus (2–4 %), have an acid reaction. They occupy vast areas in China (the
Yangtze River basin), in the south of the USA, in the former USSR (Western
Transcaucasia, the Lenkoran Lowland). They are poor in nutrients and have low
fertility (require significant amounts of fertilizers). They are used for subtropical
crops (citrus fruits, tea).
129
L I S T O F R E C O M ME N DE D L I T E R A T U R E
1. Avakian A. B., Lebedeva I. P. Reservoirs of the twentieth century as a global
phenomenon // Izv. RAS, Geography series. 2002. No. 3 p.13–20.
2. Akimova T. A., Haskin V. V. Fundamentals of eco–development – textbook.
M.: Publishing House of Russian Economy. akad. 1994. 312 p.
3. Alisov B. P., Poltaraus B. V. Climatology. M.: Publishing House of Moscow
State University. 1974. 300 p.
4. Ananyeva V. I., Tavrov A.V., Korablev O. I. Habitable zones from the Solar
system to exoplanets // Earth and the Universe. 2020. No. 3. pp. 37–45.
5. Aristotle. Meteorology / Transl. N. V. Braginskaya // Aristotle. Essays in four
volumes. Vol. 3. M.: Thought, 1981. 613 p.
6. Arsenyev K. I. Brief General Geography / Arsenyev K. I. – Moscow: Lan, 2014.
7. Astvatsaturov A. E. Engineering ecology // Textbook. – Rostov n/A: Publish-
ing center of DSTU. 2006
8. Bazilevich N. I., Rodin L. E., Rozov N. N. How much does the living matter of
the planet weigh? // Nature, 1971, No. 1, pp. 46–53.
9. Barsov N. P. Essays on Russian historical geography. Geography of the origi-
nal Chronicle / N. P. Barsov – Moscow: Lan, 2013
10. Bobynin V. V. Eratosthenes // Encyclopedic Dictionary – St. Petersburg:
Brockhaus – Efron, 1904. Vol. Xl. pp. 947–949
11. Bobkov, A. A. Earth science [Text]: textbook for students of institutions of
higher professional education studying in the field of training "Geography" /
A. A. Bobkov, Yu. P. Seliverstov – 4th ed., reprint. and additional – Moscow:
Academy, 2012. – 320 p.
12. Bobrov V. V. Biosphere reserves and sustainable development of Russia //
Ecology and life. 2007. No. 8, pp. 56–59.
13. Bronshten V. A. Claudius Ptolemy / Ed. by A. A. Gurstein. M.: Nauka, 1988. 239 p.
14. Vernadsky V. I. Biosphere. L.: Scientific chemical-technical publishing
house. – 1926, 148 p.
15. Vernadsky V. I. Living matter. Moscow: Nauka, 1978. 358 p.
16. Vernadsky V. I. Chemical structure of the Earth's biosphere and its environ-
ment. 2nd edition. Moscow: Nauka, 1987. 339 p.
17. Voitkevich G. V., Vronsky V. A. Fundamentals of the doctrine of the biosphere.
2nd edition, supplement and revision. Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1996. 480 p.
List of recommended literature
130
18. Vronsky V. A. The living substance of the planet: the biomass of the land //
Biology at school, 1989, No. 5, pp. 5–10.
19. Vronsky V. A. Acid rain: ecological aspect // Biology at school. 2006. No. 3, pp. 3–6.
20. Vronsky V. A. Circulation of substances in the biosphere: ecological aspect //
Biology at school. 1991. No. 3, pp. 7–14.
21. Vronsky V. A. Ecology and the environment (dictionary-reference). Moscow:
ICC "March". Rostov-on-Don: izdat. centre. "March", 2008. 432 p.
22. Geology, geoecology, evolutionary geography / E. M. Nesterov – Saint Peters-
burg: A. I. Herzen State Pedagogical University, 2014. 356 p.
23. Gorshkov S. P. Land resources of the world. Anthropogenic impacts. M.:
Znanie, 1987. 48 p.
24. Gorshkov S. P. The doctrine of the biosphere. Introduction. Moscow: Publish-
ing house of Moscow State University, 2007. 240 p.
25. Danilina O. V., Nesterova S. S. Studying geography: Collection of texts. Kha-
barovsk: publishing house of Khabar. state. tech. un-ta. 2004. 92 p.
26. Dokuchaev, V. V. Russian chernozem. Popular essay // Nov. SPb., 1885. Issue
18. pp. 194–215
27. Zubarev V. G. The Northern Black Sea region in the historical and geograph-
ical concept of Claudius Ptolemy. – Tula: Publishing house of TSPU named
after L. N. Tolstoy, 1998. 105 p.
28. Karlovich I. A. Geology. Textbook for universities. M.: Academic project
Gaudeamus. 2013. 704 p.
29. Claudius Ptolemy. Geography (excerpts) // The Ancient East in the ancient and
Early Christian tradition (India, China, Southeast Asia) / Trans. and note by
G. A. Taronyan. M.: Ladomir. 2007. pp. 212–247
30. Climates of the globe, especially Russia / [Op.] A. I. Voeikova, Dr. Phys. ge-
ography Imp. Moscow. un-ta, Doctor of Philosophy Göttingen. un-ta, assoc.
phys. geography in Imp. S.-Petersburg University,… Saint Petersburg: Kar-
togr. the institution of A. Ilyin, 1884. [2], VI, 640, III p., 20 l. il.
31. Kovda V. A. Biogeochemistry of soil cover. Moscow: Nauka, 1985. 263 p.
32. Kosolapov A. B. Tourist country studies. Europe and Asia [Text]: study-practice.
handbook for students of higher educational institutions / A. B. Kosolapov –
Moscow: Knorus, 2005. – 400 p.
33. Kostyukova N. I., Mikhailenko B. G. Physics of the Earth and the Solar sys-
tem // Almanac of modern Science and education. 2011. No. 12. pp. 37–44.
Соседние файлы в предмете [НЕСОРТИРОВАННОЕ]