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Файл:Discourse Strategies in Use. Учебное пособие
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Table 1 – Transitions (continues)
Category
Words and Phrases
nevertheless, in spite of, in contrast, yet,
on the one hand, on the other hand,
rather, or, nor, conversely, at the same
time, while this may be true.
3) Illustration
Thus, for example, for instance, namely,
to illustrate, in other words, in particular,
specifically, such as.
4) Similarity of Comparison
Similarly, likewise, in like fashion, in like
manner, analogous to.
5) Time
After, before, then, once, next, last, at
last, at length, first, second, etc., at first,
formerly, rarely, usually, another, finally,
soon, meanwhile, at the same time, for a
minute, hour, day, etc., during the
morning, day, week, etc., most important,
later, ordinarily, to begin with,
afterwards, generally, in order to,
subsequently, previously, in the
meantime, immediately, eventually,
concurrently, simultaneously.
6) Space
To the left (of), to the right (of), in the
center, on the side, along the edge, on
top, below, beneath, under, around,
above, over, straight ahead, at the top, at
the bottom, surrounding, opposite, at the
rear, at the front, in front of, beside,
behind, next to, nearby, in the distance.
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Table 1 – Transitions (continues)
7) Concession
Although, at any rate, at least, still,
thought, even though, granted that, while
it may be true, in spite of, of course.
8) Emphasis
Above all, indeed, truly, of course,
certainly, surely, in fact, really, in truth,
again, besides, also, furthermore, in
addition.
9) Details
Specifically, especially, in particular, to
explain, to list, to enumerate, in detail,
namely, including.
11) Consequence or Result
So that, with the result that, thus,
consequently, hence, accordingly, for this
reason, therefore, so, because, as, since,
due to, as a result, in other words, then.
12) Summary
Therefore, finally, consequently, thus, in
short, in conclusion, in brief, as a result,
accordingly, generally.
13) Suggestion
For this purpose, to this end, with this in
mind, with this purpose in mind,
therefore.
Transitions of thought consist of words that help to maintain the continuity of
thought from one utterance or a group of utterances to the next. Transitions of thought are
produced by the following techniques:
1) Pronouns and Possessive Pronouns. Follow a noun with a pronoun (to continue
the same subject) or a possessive pronoun (to move to something related to the original
subject).
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Ex: Sally is a beautiful girl. Her hair is long, her eyes are dark. She likes to wear
long skirts.
Jim likes to go fishing with his friends. They do it practically every weekend.
2) Keyword Repetition. Repeat the word around which the narration is focusing.
Ex: I always dreamt to taste Missis Smith’s apple pie. This famous pie was said to
be extraordinarily delicious.
3) Synonyms. A synonym is a word that means nearly the same as another word.
The meaning is close enough so that the thought continues, but different enough so that the
idea expands and gains greater definition than it would by simply repeating the same word
over and over.
Ex: Jack Terry bought a new house. It was a very impressive dwelling with massive
doors and shutters.
For that party Mary bought a nice red dress with beautiful pearly buttons. This
scarlet perfection was discussed by all Mary’s neighbours.
4) Demonstrative Pronouns and Adjectives. Demonstrative pronouns include this,
that, these, and those. They are useful for direction and emphasis. It is a good idea to
change demonstrative pronouns to demonstrative adjectives by adding a clarifying noun
(so instead of saying, “This is good,” say, “This ice cream is good.”).
Ex: Many people all over the world like to read “Agnes Grey” by Ann Bronte. This
book is captivating.
You want to go there again this summer. This idea, however, is ridiculous.
1.4 Practical assignments
1) Think over and write down 3 sentences of your own for each category of
transitional words and phrases given in the table above.
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2) TASK 1:
a) Make these two sentences into one using “because”:
The Harrisons were having a party.
Their daughter was getting engaged.
b) Join these two sentences into one using “therefore”:
The police issued a warning on the radio.
A dangerous man had escaped from hospital.
c) Link these two sentences using “however”:
Marie was worried about the killer.
Her husband was only worried about the car.
d) Link these sentences using “so”:
George went to find help.
The car broke down.
e) Link these sentences using “since”:
Marie could not walk in the rain.
Her clothes were not suitable.
f) Link these sentences using “so that”:
No-one could see her.
Marie hid under a blanket.
g) Link these sentences using “as a result”:
Marie heard a strange sound on the roof.
She became very frightened.
h) Link these sentences using “as”:
The knocking continued all night.
Marie could not sleep.
i) Link these sentences using “and”:
Several policemen leapt out.
One of them rushed towards the car.
j) Link these sentences using “but”:
The policeman told Marie not to look back.
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She could not help it.
TASK 2: Think over your own pairs of sentences for your fellow-students to make
them coherent with the help of discourse markers given in the table above.
3) TASK 1: Choose the right variant of a transition from given ones.
a) In particular/ However/ For instance
Polls show that Tony Blair is the most popular Prime Minister this century.
________________, there are even members of his own party who are uneasy with his
approach.
b) Consequently/ otherwise/ as a rule
There are some slight variations in temperature, but ________________ 26 ºC to 27
ºC should be expected.
c) for example/ namely/ in particular
The two main Channel Islands, ________________ Jersey and Guernsey, are much
closer to France than to England.
d) As a result/ So that/ Likewise
It was announced that nurses' working hours would be increased by 25 %.
______________, even fewer trainee nurses are expected to join the profession.
e) Above all/ Correspondingly/ In contrast
Sales of CDs have experienced a small but steady fall over the past 12 months.
_____________, vinyl records have seen an increase in their share of the market, up to 1.7
%.
f) Nevertheless/ In other words/ Similarly
The Vice Chancellor explained that in light of the current financial climate and
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because of unexpected bad debts, it would be necessary to peg salary levels at their current
level for all grades of staff. ______________, no-one was getting a pay rise.
g) Furthermore/ In comparison with/ With reference to
It is clear, therefore, that the situation in Brazil will improve only slowly.
______________ the economic problems being experienced in Japan, the outlook is
slightly more optimistic.
h) as well as/ in addition/ in the same way
In order to try to reduce car use in the inner cities, the government has announced
new restrictions on company parking spaces and ______________, a new tax on
individual car use.
i) obviously/ otherwise/ as a result
Essays must be handed in by the deadline, ______________ they will not be
marked.
j) Nevertheless/ Because/ Even though
______________ it has been shown that fractures can occur at even relatively low
pressures, the use of the material should not be completely discounted.
TASK 2: Think over 3-5 sentences with missed discourse markers for your fellowstudents to choose the right transitional word from those given by you.
4) Choose the transitional words given below to fill in the blanks in the text.
Hypnosis, as defined by the American Psychological Association of
Psychological Hypnosis, is “a procedure ________ which a health professional
________ researcher suggests that a client, patient, or experimental participant
experience changes in sensations, perceptions, thoughts, or behaviour”.
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________, any definition will be vague, ________ the underlying mechanism
is little understood. Some theories view hypnosis as an altered state of
consciousness, others as a type of focused attention.
Psychologists have recently researched hypnosis ________ found a strong
correlation between the ease of putting someone in a state of “hypnosis” and their
level of suggestibility. ________, under hypnosis people become more
susceptible to suggestion, causing changes in the way they feel, think, and
behave, ________ ________ popular belief they do still remain theoretically in
control of their actions.
Hypnosis ________ generally stimulates a feeling of relaxation, ________
this has helped its development into a therapy – hypnotherapy. One of the
treatments in hypnotherapy is regression. Often it is viewed by some
psychologists with skepticism. It is claimed that when participants are put through
the process of regression, they may invent false memories ________ the social
expectations placed on them. These memories can not ________ be reliable.
Although, also, however, as, therefore, or, and, during, and, generally,
contrary to, due to.
5) Read the following text and insert such transitions of thought as personal and
possessive pronouns.
Letters in the Mail
by E. Caldwell
Almost everybody likes to receive letters. And perhaps nobody in Stillwater
liked to get letters more than Ray Buffin. But unfortunately Ray received fewer
letters in ______ box at the post-office than anybody else.
Guy and Ralph were two young men in town who liked to play jokes on
people. But ______ never meant anything bad. One afternoon ______ decided to
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play a joke on Ray Buffin. Their plan was to ask a girl in town to send Ray a love
letter without signing it, and then tell everybody in the post-office to watch Ray
read the letter; then somebody was to ask Ray if ______ had received a love
letter from a girl. After that somebody was to snatch the letter out of ______ hand
and read it aloud.
______ bought blue writing paper and went round the corner to the office of
the telephone company where Grace Brooks worked as a night telephone
operator.
Grace was pretty though not very young. ______ had begun working for the
company many years ago, after ______ had finished school. ______ had
remained unmarried all those years, and because ______ worked at night and
slept in the daytime it was very difficult for ______ to find a husband.
At first, after Guy and Ralf had explained to ______ what ______ wanted to
do and had asked ______ to write the letter to Ray, Grace refused to do it.
“Now, be a good girl, Grace, do ______ a favour and write the letter.”
Suddenly ______turned away. ______ didn't want the young men to see ______
crying. ______ remembered the time ______ had got acquainted with Ray. Ray
wanted to marry ______. But ______ had just finished school then and had
started to work for the telephone company; ______ was very young then and did
not want to marry anybody. Time passed. During all those years ______ had seen
______ a few times but only a polite word had passed between ______, and each
time ______ looked sadder and sadder.
Finally ______ agreed to write the letter for Guy and Ralph and said that
______would send it in the morning.
After ______ left the telephone office Grace thought about Ray and cried.
Late at night ______wrote the letter.
The next day Guy and Ralph were in the post-office at 4 o'clock. By that time
there was a large crowd in the post-office. When Ray came in and saw a letter in
______box ______ looked at it in surprise. ______ couldn't believe ______ eyes.
______ opened the box, took out the blue envelope and went to the corner of the
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room to read ______. When ______ finished ______ behaved like mad. ______
smiled happily and ran out of the room before Guy and Ralph had time to say
anything to stop ______. Ray hurried round the corner to the telephone office.
When Guy and Ralph ran into the room where Grace worked they saw Ray
Buffin standing near the girl with the widest and happiest smile ______ had ever
seen on ______ face. It was clear ______ had not spoken a word yet. ______ just
stood in silence, too happy to worry about Guy and Ralph watching ______.
6) Distribute the following words into 3 synonymic rows of:
a) laughing, thinking and going
To smile, to shuffle, to chortle, to chuckle, to walk, to snicker, to believe, to snigger,
to tramp, to titter, to ponder, to suppose, to roam, to wander, to guffaw, to ramble, to muse,
to straddle, to consider, to stride, to grin, to meditate, to mince, to pace, to guess, to giggle,
to march, to reflect, to tread.
b) quickness, friend and conversation
Fastness, crony, promptness, alacrity, velocity, acquaintance, companion, celerity,
confidant, pal, swiftness, buddy, chum, chat, comrade, colloquy, rapidity, dialogue, talk,
intimate, discussion, mate, parley, discourse, speed, chat, jabber.
c) gaily, endlessly and calmly
Cheerfully, perpetually, joyously, peacefully, festively, imperturbably, airily,
everlastingly, jauntily, constantly, merrily, gleefully, joyfully, continually, eternally,
unendingly, interminably, incessantly, tranquilly, quietly, happily, composedly, blissfully,
levelheadedly, coolly, ceaselessly, serenely.
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2 Descriptive Strategy
2.1 Theory
Descriptive strategy is also widely used in human communication. We often
describe people, objects of nature, our surroundings and even our emotional state. In
descriptive telling there is no underlying “plot” to hold your story together so you may
think of a central idea to which everything you describe can be related.
In descriptive strategy there is no single event which will keep the listener in
suspense as there is in a narrative story. Whether or not your description will be exciting to
listen to will depend entirely on the details you include.
There are some main principles of “building” descriptive strategies which we use in
our communication:
1) “Abundance of attributes” principle. It’s rather logical to suggest that any
description would contain a lot of descriptive attributes and epithets (as without these
means of our language no description can be built).
Epithet has remained over the centuries the most widely used stylistic device, which
is understandable – it offers great opportunities of qualifying any object from the partial
and subjective points of view. Epithet expresses a characteristic of an object, both exciting
and imaginary. Its basic feature is its emotiveness and subjectivity. Our speech
ontologically is emotionally coloured, so, it is possible to say that the use of epithets in
descriptions helps the listener to create the image of the object being characterized rather
vividly and emotionally. Epithets may be subdivided into two groups:
- affective epithets – they serve to convey the emotional evaluation of the object by
the speaker (Ex: nasty, gorgeous, magnificent);
- transferred epithets – they are formed of metaphors, metonymies and similes, and
are based on similarity of characteristics of two objects, or nearness of the qualified
objects, or on their comparison. (Ex: the smiling sun, a ghost-like face).
Descriptive attributes give the listener objective information about the thing being
characterized. They don’t bear any emotional colouring (Ex: white walls, a tall person).
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